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세계인들을 향해서 이렇게 걸어가시면 좋다고 봅니다


무유 2010.08.27 14:21

김일성 사망 이후인 1997년 북한 고위급 인사 2만5천 명이 처형 유배된'심화조 사건'이 발생한다.
[출처] 김일성 사망 이후인 1997년 북한 고위급 인사 2만5천 명이 처형 유배된'심화조 사건'이 발생한다.

1994년 김일성 사망후의 북한 사회의 내부의 변화되어가는 과정이나 그속에 미국과 그리고 김일성과 김정일의 중심에 서있는 카터의 처세술과 심정은 과연 이번 북한을 방문한 카터는 과연 김정일에게 무슨 메세지를 던져주고 올것인지 이미 그러한것은 공개될수가 없으나 김정일의 사망후의 대북의 그림들을 설정하는 방문이되었을것으로 본다 김정일의 사망은 이제 1년을 남기지않는것으로 본다 바르면 올해안에 10월 늦으면 내년 새해 벽두에서 발생될것이고 동시에 북한 내부의 권력 쟁탈과 중국과 미국 개입 쟁탈전이 생길것이다 이것은


무유 2010.08.27 14:22

G2 시대를 열어감에 그 주도권을 잡고자하는 북한 권력의 형국이고 이 틀속에서 대한민국 권력도 요동을 칠것이다 일본과 러시아도 덩달아서 뒷에서 보조를 할것이고 이러한 그림들은 미리 다 설계가 되어진것으로 안다 지금 대한민국은 여전히 자신들의 기륵권밥그릇을 챙기고자 법안들을 생산하고 있고 민생은 국가와 민족의 앞날의 설계를 하지못하는자들이 설치는 판국에 그래도 미래는 밝고 희망적이다 그것은 지난날의 모든 어둠들을 걷어내고 그러한 길을 걸어갈것이다


소생은 이 지구촌의 지구 행성과 우주 무한한 물질의 공간 세계와 무한한 영적인 세계와 더불어서 인류 문명이 수많은 신앙 세계 흐름속에서 현재 인류문명이 중대한 대전환의 대변환의 전환점에 서있기에 여기에 지금 세계 4대 종교 신앙을 비롯하여 그동안 그 밑거름인 전세계 각 국가나 민족의 무손 신앙의 맥은 지금도 이어오고 있기에

그러한 과정속에서 현재 인류문명은 인류의 모든 신앙을 융합해야하는 변화와 도전에 직면했기에 그동안 다 자신의 국가나 민족 그리고 가족 구성원의 번영과 안녕 차원 기복 신앙을 해 왔다면 이제는 과거의 인류문명의 신앙과 현재의 문명의 신앙이 합의동심하여서 융합하는 자세가 필요한 인류문명이 도래했다라는 사실이다

어차피 지구촌이 하나의 공동체 지구촌의 구성원이 되어지고 가까워지고 있고 그동안 인류문명의 과거 기복 무속 신앙과 현대의 4대 종교 신앙은 거듭강조하지만 별개의 문제의 신앙이 아니다라는 분명한 사실이고

여기서 인류 전체의 모든 기복 신앙의 원신은 그리고 4대종교 신앙의 원신은 누구인지 이 지구와 우주 전체의 무ㅜㄹ질의 공간 세계를 초월하는 주인이 누구이신지 동시에 성령의 세계나 성불의 세계나 신령의 세계,혼령 망령의 세계의 주인은 누구인지 그리고 지금 육신을 달고 살아가는 인간들 지구인들의 현재 그대들 모두의 주인은 누구인지 그야말로 하늘과 땅,천지인의 주인이 누구신지 진실을 알게될것이지만

다들 각자의 신앙에 대해서 이러한 부분에 대한 딜레마는 항상 가지고 살아온 인류 문명의 신앙의 궁금증이였고 베일에 가려진것이다 그리고 그러한것들을 쉽게 인간들에게 그 당시 인류 문명이나 인간들에게 나타낼수가없는 인류문명의 환경이였기에 나타낼 아니 맞이할 준비가 되어있지못한 우리 인간들의 환경이였기에 그러한것이고

그러니 지금도 전세계 수많은 무속의 기복 신앙과 4대 종교 신앙을 비롯한 기타 신앙을 통해서 가짜의 혼령들이 악령들이 이 지구를 어지럽혀온것이다 그것이 인간의 혼속에 들어가서 인간들을 어둠으로 몰고 가고 있고 동시에 그 자신의 인간은 자신 스스로가 강력한 성령과 성불의 신령의 절대적인 믿음과 실천으로 살아가려고 노력도 하지않고 계율대로 지키려고 하지않으니 더더욱이 요불 사불들이 이 인류 전체를 어지럽히고 있다라는 사실이다

성경에 나오는 뱀의 의미는 사탄은 바로 이들의 몸속에 그러한 요불사불들이 설치고 다니는 인간들이 태반이다

그러한 요불 사불들을 과거 인류문명이 어찌되었건간에 현재 지구인들 전체의 인간들이 자신들이 과거의 조상님들의 잘못된 업장의 죄값을 반성하고 참회하는 지극 정성의 기도를 통해서 풀어드려야하고 동시에 현재 자신의 업장의 죄값도 풀어내야하는것이고 아울려 미래에 대한 보증수표로 전세게 신앙의 가르침의 선지식 공부를 해서 인류의 불행과 고통을 구제하는데 촛불이 되는것이 얼마나 큰 축복이고 보상인데 이러한것에 대한 의구심이들고 불신하는 자체는 그들의 근기가 깨달음이 부족에서 기인하는것이기에 아울려 살아있는 인간들을 불행과 고통에서 구제하는것만 능사가 아니라 죽어간 인간들의 넋을 보고도 천도해드려야하는데 무조건 악한것이라고 배척하고 퇴마하는것도 바림직한것이 아니다라는 사실이다

그들도 전생에 인간으로와서 깨달음을 수행을 하지못하여 그렇게 된것을 현재 자신의 육신이나 영이 또한 그렇게되는것을 소생이 이곳 봉길리 해수욕장에서 서양 종교에서나 불교에서 볼수없는 광경들을 보면서 죽은 넋들도 보여주시는것도 다 아무나 보여주시는것도 아니기에 지금 전세계 무속인들이 역시나 인간으로 태어나서 보편적인 일반인 인간으로 살다가 자신의 조상의 넋을 달래드리지못한 나머지 사회 생활에 막히고 신병들고 사고나 죽음을 맞이하는 유형중에 그나마 어쩔수없이 신령의 제자 길로 들어오시는 분들이 태반이다

그러나 이분들이 가짜 신령들의 접신으로 진위를 가려내기위해서는 얼마나 많은 선지식 공부를 해야하고 세계 신앙 공부를 많이 해야 그 진위를 알수가 있는데 그러하지못하기에 악순환의 대물림의 굴레에서 육도윤회를 하고 있는것이다

그래서 세계 신앙을 융합도 하는 차원도 있지만 더 큰 신앙 공부를 해서 이 우주와 지구 전체의 삼계의 유일한 성령과 성불의 신령의 대삼합육의 원주인을 절대적으로 믿음과 실천속에서만 그 진위가 가려지게되는것이다

그러니 막연하게 불교가 생긴것도 아니요 기독교가 생긴것도 아니니 무속 신앙도 마찬가지이고 그러니 모든 신앙의 선지식 공부를 먼저해가면서 계율을 지키고나서 무속 신앙을 체험하고 나면 그 나머지 성령과 성불의 신앙을 이해하고 확인하는데 가장 빠른길의 그 길로 갈수가 있는것이다

서양 종교로보면 소생이 무속 신앙의 공부를 이곳 대한민국 봉길리 해수욕장 동해바다 문무 대왕릉이 계시는곳에서 그야말로 이해될수가없는 신비스러운 광경들을 목격하고 보여주신다

그것은 영이 맑아야하고 다른 국가마다 나무에 오색기를 달아놓는 무속 신앙도 다 같은 의미를 담고 있는것이고 이제는 세계 무속 협회를 하나 만들어서 기존의 4대종교 협회와 협력 상생해가고 동시에 지구촌의 인류문명의 걸어오면서 달려온 지구촌 조상님들의 넋들을 대대적으로 천도시키고 그들의 넋들을 단순하게 천도시키지말고 미래의 육도윤회를 해서 인간의 몸으로 다시오면 반드시 인류의 불행과 고통을 구제해가는 종이 촛불이 되어라고 축원을 해드려라는것이다 단순하게 다시 인간의 몸으로와서 자신의 육신의 오욕칠정을 느끼라고 인간으로 허락해주는것이 아니기에 그러하다

그래서 성경에 기록한바대로 무덤에서 자는자들을 죽은자들을 부활시켜서 심판할수도 있음은 여기에서 출발하는것이다 성령,성불이 신령중에 신령의 그 세계에 들어오지않는한은 육도윤회를 하는것이 인간의 생명과 영혼의 한계이다

그래서 그것을 아시기에 대소멸을 훗날에 다른 행성처럼 대소멸을 시키는것이다 즉 생명이 존재할수없는 행성이 만들어지는것이다 지구 행성도 그렇게 되겠지만 지금은 아니기에 주어진 지구행성 수명시간안에 자신의 영혼을 성령,성불로 신령중에 신령이 되어라는것이다 죽어서 모든것이 끝나지않기에 해주는 말이다

그리고 앞으로 세계3차 대전을 치루기전에는 미리 대상체들을 계산해서 넋이 천도되도록 미리 고하고 세계3차 대전을 치루어서 집행해갈것이다 그만큼 요불 사불들이 해원도 해원이지만 더는 방치할수가 없기에 그만큼 충분한 시간들을 주었다 그럼에도 깨우치지못하고 있으니 전쟁으로 한을 망령이되어서 천도하지못하여 인간들을 인류를 어지럽히는 요불 사불들을 그들이 스스로 그렇게 만든것은 자각하지못하고 다 후손들을 주변을 타인을 탓하는 그것이 인간의 그릇된 자각하지못한 영들의 모습이고 인류문명의 악순환의 굴레의 모습이였든것이다

이러한것들이 모여서 국가나 민족의 운명이 나타나는것이고 국격이고 국력인것이고 현재의 처지의 모습들이다라는 사실이다 하늘에 높으신분은 언제나 지구촌 누구에게나 공평하게 주어지고 있고 내려다보시고 있고 모든것은 인간들이 인간의 맘으로 보고 있기에 그러한것을 그것이 큰 착각이다라는 사실을 발견해보아라!

소생은 너무나 뼈저리게 인간의 미약함을 너무나 미약함을 느끼고 있다라는 사실이다 언제가지나 인간은 인간이지만 세상이 혼탁하면 성령의 길로 성불의 길로 신령님의 길로 가기에는 매우 열악한 지구촌의 환경인셈이다 그러한 유혹들을 이겨내기란 자신의 육신의 목숨도 버릴수있는 각오가 없으면 못한다라는 사실이다

우리 인류가 얼마나 헛되게 보내왔는지 자각하시고 그 업도 크지만 이제부터라도 지구 공동체 구성원의 일원으로 자각하시고 모든것을 바라보시고 살아가고 그러한 신앙의 자세로 살아가야합니다

악신보다는 선신이 많아야 하고 선신에서 그 위에 선악이 생사가 구별되지않기에 그 위의 세계로 올라오라는것이 신앙을 행하는 이유인것이다 성경에 적힌대로 어느 정도 불가피하게 요한 계시록처럼 될수밖에 없지만 아직도 그때가 아니기에 기회가 많기에 게을리 하지말고 부지런히 소생이 지적한대로 살아가라는것이다


지금은 어느 한국가나 어느 한 민족을 구하는 하늘의 뜻도 아니기에 매우 어지럽고 어수선한 대전환의 국면에 처한 인류문명을 중심을 잡아갈 대상체에게 이들을 올바르게 인도하고 교화해서 자각시켜서 그 나머지 모든 국가와 모든 민족을 통솔해갈 조직을 구성하고 세워가는것이 더 급선무인것이 지금 지구촌의 인류문명의 형국이기에 다들 각 국가나 민족마다 욕심들을 내고 이해관계에 얼키고 설키기에 풀수없기에 하늘은 그래서 그들에게 관심을 보우하고 있는것이다

그러니 이 지구촌 어느 국가든 어느 국민이든 어느 민족이든 어느 신앙이든간에 까불지말고 반성과 참회나 부지런히하고 지구촌의 모든 영가들을 얷들을 달래어서 천도시켜라 자신의 국가나 민족의 호국 영령들도 그러하고 전쟁으로 인한 상혼들이 얼마나 많은가 아직도 물질문명의 혜택으로 비명횡사한 넋들도 부지기수이고 살아있는 세계만 전부가 다아니니 항상 9계 세계가 공존하므로 함부로 까불지말라는것이다

그것만이 그나마 나은 선택이고 길이다

천신이 머무를수있는 지구촌에서 공간을 한번 만들어보아라 그만큼 천신이 머무를수있는 공간들이 오대양 육대주중에 없다라는것이다 그나마 이 한반도에서 대한민국에서 어렵게시리 솔직히 대한민국 봉길리 해수욕장은 성지로 만들어야함에도 불구하고 탄압하려는 세력들이 있다면 이곳을 성지로 만들고자함이다

소생이 대한민국 전국 국토 만행순례 240일을 마치고 신령님의 인도속에서 이곳에 와서 접하는 그 자체가 중요한 의미와 가치를 담고 있기에 여기서 일부 그릇된 교인들이 협조하지못하면 잡아족칠것이다

목룡 승천지는 세계 전체의 성지로 공부할수있도록 제공하는 혈자리이기에 그동안 선몽들은 그러한 천신의 신령님의 말씀이였든것이다

성령과 성불 그리고 무속신앙의 이 세가지중에 어느 한개도 빠지고 신앙 공부를 하면 도루묵이다라는 사실을 알고 갈수록 절대 강자의 제자와 종을 찿는것이다 이지구촌에서도 지금도 절대 강자가 되기위해서 소생의 말을 믿고 공부와 신앙을 부지런히 하고 있을것이다

이와같은 준엄한 말속에서 다 들어있으니 믿고 행하라는것이다

세계 샤머니즘의 보편성과 관련한 몽골 샤머니즘의 문화적 특성



【 목 차 】

1. 서론 : 샤먼과 샤머니즘에 대한 편견을 넘어

2. 샤머니즘에도 보편성이라는 개념이 적합한가?

3. 세계 샤머니즘의 보편성과 관련한 몽골 샤머니즘의 문화적 특성

1) 유목문화에서 발전한 몽골 샤머니즘의 정치적 성격

2) 종교적 지평융합

3) 자연친화적 종교성

4) 역사속의 트라우마

4. 결론 : 변화속의 몽골 샤머니즘



1. 서론 : 샤먼과 샤머니즘에 대한 편견을 넘어

한국과 몽골의 샤먼들을 만나면서 그들이 무척 지혜로운 사람이라는 것을 느꼈다. 그 지혜로움은 삶의 연륜에서 축적된 슬기일지도 모른다. 하지만 젊고 어린 샤먼들을 만나도 같은 인상을 받을 수 있었던 것을 보면 그 지혜가 단지 연대기적 결과물은 아닌듯하다. 샤먼들의 지혜의 근원은 무엇보다도 '산전수전'으로 표현하는 남다른 굴곡과 고통을 딛고 '정신병자'에서 '종교적 직능자'로서의 사회적 정체성을 확립하는 치열한 경험에서 찾아야 할 것이다.1) 그 자신이 극심한 고통의 터널을 지나 샤먼이 된 사람은 타인의 고통에 그만큼 더 민감할 수 있으며, 타인이 절박하게 원하는 것이 무엇인지를 섬세하게 간파할 수 있는 것이다. 샤먼들과 대화하고, 의례에 참여하면서 마음의 위로와 평화를 얻을 수 있었던 것은 그들이 나의(혹은 그 순간에 직관한 나와 같은 상태의) 고통을 '잘 알고' 연대해주었기 때문이다.

하지만 이러한 샤먼의 인간적 아름다움과 종교적 직능은 공정한 평가를 받고 있지 못하다. 역사적으로도 샤머니즘은 종교라기보다는 광기어린 인간들의 그로테스크한 현상으로 폄하되기 일수였다. 신대륙에 들어간 리차드 에덴(Richard Eden)이라는 사람은 카나리(Canary) 군도의 원주민들에 대해 "(이곳의)거주민들은 수치심, 종교 혹은 신에 대한 지식을 결여한 채 벌거벗고 있었다."고 기록했다.2) 그레고리안 찬트가 없고, 깔끔한 예복을 입은 성직자들이 없고, 장엄한 미사가 없는 원주민들은 종교도 영혼도 없는 '동물'처럼 여겨졌던 것이다.3) 이처럼 타자(원주민)의 의미체계를 자신(서양인)의 종교 개념으로 덮어씌우는 것이 과연 공정한 것일까.

탈랄 아사드(Talal Asad)가 종교 개념의 역사성을 날카롭게 지적한 것처럼, 조나단 스미스(Jonathan Z. Smith)도 서양인의 종교개념의 보편적 적용을 비판했다. 그는 '종교'가 원주민의 범주가 아니었음에도 불구하고 원주민들은 종교를 가지고 있지 않다고 평가한 서양인의 인식은, 종교가 보편적 인간현상이라는 전제를 과도하게 적용한 것이라고 비판했다.4) 북방 민족의 샤머니즘을 연구한 펜티케이넨(Juha Pentik inen)도 만약 종교라는 개념을 북방민족의 맥락에 사용하려면, 종교의 정의는 종교를 다른 삶의 영역으로 사용하는 서구의 종교 개념보다는 더 총체론적이고 개방적이어야 할 것이라고 지적했다.5) 이런 비판의 공통점은 샤머니즘의 '실용적' 측면을 재평가할 수 있게 하며, 샤먼과 그의 신앙민들이 형성하는 공동체를 공정하게 보게 하는 인식의 변화를 지향한다는 점이다.

한편 샤먼에 대한 또 하나의 곡해는 '전도된 의식상태(ASC)'에만 과도하게 집중하는 연구 흐름과 관련된다. 흔히 샤머니즘 연구는 샤먼의 트랜스나 퍼제션 그리고 엑스타시에 초점을 맞추고 수행되는 경우가 많았다. 물론 샤머니즘이 다른 종교와 비교하여 엑스타시 현상을 '중심으로' 하는 것은 사실이다. 하지만 아마용(R. N. Hamayon)이 트랜스, 퍼제션, 엑스타시의 개념에 내포된 전제들을 문제삼으면서 지적했듯이 의식의 '변형'에 우선적 관심을 맞추는 배경은 여전히 샤머니즘을 정신병리학적 이상상태로 보는 시각을 나타낸다. 아마용은 샤머니즘에서 중요한 것은 트랜스 상태에 들어간다는 것이 아니라 샤먼들이 신령과 접촉한다는 것을 '믿는' 행위라고 지적했다. 샤머니즘을 샤머니즘으로 만드는 것은 샤먼의 의식상태가 아니라 샤먼이 속한 지역 공동체의 문화이며 신자들이라는 것이다.6)

샤먼을 광인으로 타자화하면 결국 샤머니즘 신앙은 정신병리학적 현상이며 소란하고 천박한 미신일 뿐이다. 그러나 개인적 질곡을 딛고 공동체를 위해 봉사하는 샤먼의 삶에 공감적으로 다가가면, 그리고 샤머니즘의 정치와 도덕, 종교적 의미체계를 지역 공동체의 문화적 맥락에서 편견없이 이해할 수 있다면 샤머니즘은 포스트모던 시대에 조응하는 종교적 영감의 원천이 될 수도 있을 것이다.

2. 샤머니즘에도 보편성이라는 개념이 적합한가?

과연 샤머니즘에도 '보편성'이라는 개념이 적합한 것일까? 시베리아로부터 라틴아메리카의 전통사회들, 그리고 고도의 산업사회에서도 발견할 수 있는 샤머니즘임에도 불구하고 이런 의문을 제기하지 않을 수 없는 것은 우선 '선교적' 세계종교들이 주장하는 보편성과 동일한 개념이 없기 때문이다. 샤머니즘에는 공통된 '신조'나 통일된 '조직체계'가 없으며, 선교의 열망에 따라 타자의 믿음을 제압하려는 정복적 의도도 없다.

또한 세계 샤머니즘을 동일한 믿음체계로 보려는 보편성의 추구는 생태학적, 역사적, 사회적, 문화적 환경을 간과하는 것이기 때문이다. 이런 '일반화'의 오류는 엘리아데(Mircea Eliade)와 하너(Michael Harner)의 작업에서 발견할 수 있다. 종교학에 지대한 영향을 미쳤던 엘리아데는 자신의 '신학적 기획'에 모든 종교 전통을 용해시키려 했다. 따라서 '고대적 접신술'로 규정한 샤머니즘 역시 역사적 문화적 상황과 상관없는 '원초적인 종교현상'으로서 인간이 신령과 소통하는 엑스타시 기술이었던 것이다. 한편 하너의 '핵심 샤머니즘(Core Shamanism)'도 샤머니즘의 일반화를 꾀한 시도였다.

그는 The Way of The Shaman(1980)에서 범세계적으로 분포한 샤먼들 실천에 나타난 공통된 주제를 추출하여 핵심 샤머니즘이라 부른 샤먼 테크닉을 종합했다. 이 테크닉의 정수는 전통적, 지역적, 문화적 특수성을 제거한 것이었다.7)

엘리아데와 하너의 주장은 방향이 약간 다르지만 샤머니즘에서 역사와 문화를 탈각시켰다는 공통점을 갖는다. 엘리아데에 대해서는 험프리(Caroline Humphrey)의 비판이 돋보인다. 그녀는 엘리아데의 일반화는 샤머니즘의 연행 내용과 믿음이 시대와 문화에 따라 다양하게 변화했다는 것을 간과한 비역사적 해석이며, 역사적 연구와 사회적, 이념적 기초에 대한 분석 없이 샤머니즘을 형이상학적인 것으로 변형한 것이라고 비판했다.8) 다른 논문에서도 엘리아데식의 원형과 기원을 찾으려는 시도는 결코 도움이 되지 않는다고 주장하면서, 샤머니즘은 권력의 맥락에서 사회적 실재의 구성물로 보아야 한다고 지적했다. 어떤 경우에도 샤머니즘은 일반화될 수 없으며, 각기 다른 역사적 상황에서 샤머니즘이 가지는 다양성과 변화를 고려해야만 한다는 것이다.9)

하너의 핵심 샤머니즘에 대한 비판은 피어스 비테브스키(Piers Vitebsky)의 논문에 잘 나타난다. 그는 하너의 핵심 샤머니즘은 여러 문화에서 추출한 샤머니즘을 종합해 '문화에 상관없이 모든 사람들에게 통용시키려는 것'으로, 본질적으로 문화를 초월하지 않는 샤머니즘을 자의적으로 해체, 재구성한 것이라고 지적했다. 그리고 핵심 샤머니즘의 구상은 상대적으로 전통 사회의 샤머니즘을 열등하고 실패한 것으로 판단하게 만든다는 것이다.10)

이런 비판적 시각을 오늘날의 상황에서 이해한다면 '세계화'에 대한 문제의식이라 할 수 있다. 비테브스키는 각 지역을 동질화시키는 세계화의 기획에 대한 비판적 분석을 통해, 오늘날의 지구촌 문화에 적절하게 받아들여질만한 샤머니즘적 사유방식의 하나로 '지역중심성'을 강조했다.11)

물론 이런 인식이 결국 샤머니즘의 보편성을 논하는 것 자체가 불가능하다고 말하는 것은 아니다. 샤머니즘이 완전히 고립된 지역적 종교현상으로 파편화되어있는 것은 아니기 때문이다. 그러나 세계적으로 보편적 유사성을 보여주는 샤머니즘의 종교적 특성들은 항상 지역의 문화적 프리즘을 투과하여 그 공동체에 발현된다. 따라서 보편성을 다룰 때도 지역적 변형에 따른 문화적 차이를 간과하지 않아야 할 것이다.

3. 세계 샤머니즘의 보편성과 관련된 몽골 샤머니즘의 문화적 특수성

'몽골 샤머니즘'의 실체는 무엇일까? 그 실체에 접근하는 것을 어렵게 하는 것은 두 측면에서 존재한다. 우선, 몽골 샤머니즘에 대한 과도한 추상화이다. 지난 해 본격적 필드워크에 나서기 전에 사란게렐(Sarangerel)이나 둘람(S. Dulam)12)등의 몽골 샤머니즘 연구문헌을 읽었을 때에는 몽골의 샤머니즘을 매우 명료하고 '체계적으로' 인식할 수 있었다. 몽골 샤머니즘의 내용을 교과서적으로 분류, 정리한 사란게렐이나, 형이상학적 틀로 몽골인들의 샤머니즘을 재구성한 둘람의 이론적 작업을 통해 전달된 몽골 샤머니즘은 외부인이라 할지라도 쉽게 이해할 수 있는 것이었다. 하지만 실제 필드워크를 통해 그들의 '설명'이 몽골 샤머니즘의 실체를 그대로 기술한 것인지, 그리고 엄밀한 현장 검증을 통해 얻어진 해석인지에 대해 여러 가지로 의심이 생겼다. 그들의 자료는 고대적(이상적인 몽골 샤머니즘)이거나 혹은 철학적(형이상학적)이었기 때문이다.

두 번째 어려움은 몽골 샤머니즘에 대한 몽골인 자신들의 무지와 관련된다. 한국에 돌아온 필자는 2차 필드워크를 준비하면서 인터넷을 통해 현지 몽골인들과 대화를 나누었고, 또한 한국에 유학온 젊은 몽골인 학생들과도 몇 차례의 만남을 가졌다. 그런데 대부분의 몽골 청년들은 자신들의 종교와 문화에 대해 상대적으로 무지하다는 것을 알 수 있었다. 심지어 울란바타르 국립대학에서 샤머니즘을 주제로 논문을 쓰고 있다는 뭉크 체쳌이라는 몽골 청년은 울란바타르에는 샤먼이 전혀 없다고 답장을 보내왔다. 그렇다면 지난 해 우리가 울란바타르에서 직접 만났고, 우리를 위해 굿도 수행했던 샤먼들은 '유령'이었던 것일까? 이런 무지의 원인은 아마도 그들 대부분이 사회주의 시기에 태어나 교육을 받으면서 전통적 종교문화로부터 괴리되었기 때문일 것이다.

'이상화'와 '무지'의 양 극단을 피하는 길은 몽골의 샤머니즘을 현재적 시각에서 이해하는 것이다. 하이지히(Walther Heissig)는 체계적으로 몽골의 종교를 설명하면서 그것이 지금은 '사라져버린(disappeared)'것이라고 단서를 달았다.13) 하이지히의 연구는 종교를 억압하던 사회주의 시기에 이루어진 것이었음을 고려해야 하겠지만, 이 '사라짐'의 전제에서 출발할 때 몽골 샤머니즘의 현재적 사실에 더 근접할 수 있을 것이다. 내가 경험한 몽골의 샤머니즘은 사라졌거나 은닉되었다가 '새롭게' 작동하는 현재적 종교현상이었기 때문이다.

그렇다고 해서 이 현재성이 과거의 종교현상과 완전히 단절된다는 것은 아니다. 폴 윌리스(Paul Willis)가 "문화적 변화는 자유롭게 떠다니는 것이 절대 아니다. 그것은 자신이 정박하는 지점들과 떨어질 수 없다."고 지적한 것처럼,14) 몽골이 시장경제로 전환한 후 새롭게 복원되기 시작한 현대 몽골의 샤머니즘은 현재적 현상이면서도 과거 전통의 의미체계와 연결되어 있는 것이다. 그러므로 몽골 샤머니즘에 대한 기술은 역사속의 문화적 특성과 동시대적 관찰을 효과적으로 병행할 때 사실에 더 가까이 다가갈 수 있을 것이다.

1) 유목문화에서 발전한 몽골 샤머니즘의 정치적 성격

지역적 변형을 겪지 않는 종교는 없지만 샤머니즘은 유달리 지역적 특성을 강하게 드러내는 종교현상이다. 그 이유는 다른 지역에서의 변형을 제어할 '정통성'이 따로 존재하지 않기 때문이다. 비테브스키가 샤머니즘은 교리, 교단, 경전도 없고, 권위있는 성직자도 없는 파편화된 것이므로 어떤 "주의(...ism)"라고 할 수 없다고 주장한 것은 샤머니즘의 지역적 특수성을 암시한다.15) 그러므로 한 지역의 샤머니즘을 이해하려면 그 지역의 역사, 문화, 생태적 조건을 고려해야만 하는 것이다.

보통 샤머니즘은 개인적인 신비체험보다는 공동체의 이해와 욕구에 대한 응답을 중심으로 해왔다. 샤머니즘이 주로 작은 규모의 공동체에서 실천된 것은 그 때문이다. 샤먼은 이웃 공동체와의 잦은 경쟁, 낮은 생산력으로 인한 협력의 요청, 공동체 안의 갈등과 같은 구체적 문제에 대한 조정자요 보호자로서 기능했던 것이고, 그 과정에서 샤먼이 공동체의 지도자로서 역할했던 것이다. 이처럼 씨족 단위의 사회에서 샤먼들이 사회의 지도층으로 역할했던 것은 어느 민족에서나 공통적으로 찾아볼 수 있는 특징이다. 하지만 대부분의 나라에서 씨족이 통합되어 고대국가가 수립되면 자연스럽게 정교분리를 거치면서 샤먼들은 주도권을 상실하고 주변화되었다. 하지만 몽골 샤머니즘은 조금 다른 발전 과정을 거쳤다. 그것은 몽골의 문화적 특수성, 즉 유목문화의 전통에 비추어 이해할 수 있다.

몽골 샤머니즘 연구에 있어 유목문화에 주목해야 하는 것은 몽골인들에게 유목문화는 선택사항이 아니었기 때문이다. 몽골의 자연환경이 몽골인들의 역사를 형성했다는 모리스 로사비(Morris Rossabi)의 분석처럼16), 근본적으로 이 지역의 생태환경이 강제한 유목적 환경에서 모든 역사적, 종교적, 문화적 맥락이 파생한 것이다.

몽골의 유목문화는 우선 정치적 성격이 강한 씨족 샤머니즘을 형성했다. 그리고 이 전통이 보다 복잡한 체제인 고대국가의 형성과 유지에서도 작동했다는 특징을 갖는다. 고대국가의 수립 이후에는 흔히 샤머니즘이 반중심성17) 혹은 주변적 성향을 띄는데 비해 정치적 차원이 강하게 부각되며 권력의 정점에 위치한 경험은 몽골 샤머니즘의 역사적 특수성이다.

그 이유는 역사적으로 목축 유목민들은 정치적 목적을 강하게 가졌다는 점에서 기인한다. 유목민들의 생활이 내포하는 분산성으로는 자연의 돌발적 위기상황과 외부인들과의 경제적, 정치적 갈등 등에 대해 효과적으로 대처할 수 없었다. 그러므로 유목민들에게 씨족은 친족일 뿐만 아니라 군사집단이며 정치세력의 성격을 가질수밖에 없었던 것이다. 이런 연대성을 이념적으로 유지하기 위해 시조의 탄생지를 성역화했고, 유목생활의 이동성과 분산성을 상쇄할 수 있는 신화적 고향으로서의 성스러운 산을 상징화했던 것이다. 그리고 샤먼은 씨족의 결속을 주도하는 지도자로서 복무했다.18)

이와 관련하여 유목문화의 샤머니즘은 위계적 세계관을 종교적으로 형성했다. 보통 샤머니즘에는 지고신이 있다해도 대부분 '숨은 신'이나 '사라진 신'으로만 존재하는 반면 몽골 샤머니즘에서는 최고신 텡그리가 신적 위계의 정점에 강력하게 위치한다. '영원한 푸른 하늘' , 즉 멍케 코케 텡그리(M nke K ke Tengri)가 현실적 의례의 중심에 있는 것이다. 이런 신관의 위계성은 절대자에 대한 종교적 헌신의 결과때문이 아니라 정치적 함의를 가진다. 즉 농경 중심의 정주사회와는 달리 유목민들의 이동적 삶은 안정된 정치체제를 구성하기 곤란했고, 따라서 이동성의 취약점을 극복할 수 있는 상징적 위계 구조를 필요로 했던 것이다. 샤머니즘 신앙을 가진 유목민들에게 수직적 초월의 관념이 발달한 것은 그 때문이다.

예를 들면 {몽골비사}의 첫부분에는 징기스한이 '천상에서 운명을 점지 받고 태어난'19) 이라고 기술되어 있는데, 이 역시 징기스한의 개인적 배경을 텡그리의 의지와 일치시킴으로써 그의 통치권을 주장하는 이데올로기의 종교적 표현이었고, 이를 통해 근본적으로 연대성이 약한 씨족들의 결속을 이루어낼 수 있었다.20) 몽골인들에게는 정치적 행동과 종교적 의례가 불가분하게 얽혀 있으며, 텡그리에게 드리는 희생제의는 하늘의 의지와 군사적 승리, 통치권의 주장, 성공의 증거로 간주되었다.21)

이런 종교적, 문화적 특성은 고대 몽골 샤먼들의 정치적 진출을 촉진하는 배경이 되었다. 실제로 12, 13세기 몽골 제국 형성기의 역사는 샤먼들이 정치적 활동의 전면에 나섰던 것을 잘 보여준다. 훗날 텝 텡그리(Teb-Tenggeri)라는 이름으로 알려진 몽골의 대샤먼 커커츄(Kokochu)는 아직 정치적으로 불안정한 위치에 있었던 테무진에게 "하늘은 테무진에게 이 대지를 통치케 할 것이다"라는 신탁을 내려준다. 그에게 '징기스한'이라는 칭호를 준 이도 커커츄였다. 이런 종교적 권위 부여는 테무진의 통치권을 정당화하는데 결정적 역할을 수행했다.22)

뿐만 아니라 파라만장했던 씨족간 전쟁과 통합을 통해 몽골고원을 통일한 징기스한의 궁정에는 베키(Beki)들의 활동이 두드러졌다. 베키라는 칭호에는 샤먼적 성격이 깃들어 있으며 샤먼적 인물 중에서도 최고의 지위와 권위를 가진 인물에게만 부여된 것이다. {몽골비사} 216절은 "베키로 추대되면 흰옷을 입고 백색 거세마를 타며 상석에 앉는다. 또 년월의 길일을 택하는 일을 주관한다"고 기술하고 있음을 볼 때, 족장급 샤먼들이 제국의 궁정에서 통치에 관여했다는 것을 알 수 있다.23)

이처럼 샤먼의 정치적 진출이 강력하다보니 당연히 징기스한의 통치권과 마찰이 생겨났다. 앞서 언급한 것처럼 제국 성립기에 징기스한을 도왔던 커커츄는 정치적 갈등속에서 징기스한의 동생이 권력을 얻을 것이라는 신탁을 내렸다. 이에 징기스한은 神·政 두 가지를 모두 장악하려는 정치적 야욕으로 커커츄를 살해한다. 그리고 스스로 신의 대리자로 자처하는 신격화를 추진했다. 훗날 멍케칸(1251-1259)은 "하늘에는 멍케-텡그리가 있듯이 대지에는 하늘의 아들인 징기스한만이 유일한 군주이다. ... 멍케-텡그리의 명령은 징기스한으로부터 출발한다."라고 선언했다. 이러한 정치적 갈등과 종교적 합리화는 샤머니즘을 이용해 절대권력을 장악하려는 초기 몽골 칸들의 의도를 극명히 보여준다.24)

이처럼 몽골 샤머니즘의 정치적 성격은 샤머니즘이 반드시 주변적이고 반권위적인 것만은 아니라는 사실을 보여주는 사례이다. 몽골뿐만 아니라 시베리아와 동북아시아 유목민들의 샤머니즘은 역사적으로 국가권력과 밀접히 결합한 경우가 많다. 험프리도 북아시아 샤머니즘은 특정한 사회의 재건에 영향을 미치는 권력에 관여한다고 분석했다.25) 비록 불교로 대체되긴 했지만 여진족 역시 샤먼적 배경에서 중국 북부에 정부를 세웠고, 몽골에서도 제국형성기뿐만 아니라 원왕조가 멸망한 이후에도 샤머니즘이 빠르게 복원되면서 정치세력화되었던 역사적 경험을 갖는다.

하지만 현재의 몽골 샤머니즘은 야쿠트족 중심의 사카(Sakha)공화국에서처럼 과거의 정치적 힘을 회복하고 있지 못하다.26) 그 이유는 시장경제로의 변화 이후 티벳불교가 과거의 사회주의적 이념을 대체하면서 급격히 복원되었기 때문이다. 티벳불교는 승단 제도를 통해 복구의 체계적 진행이 용이했지만 샤머니즘은 늙은 샤먼들의 '재개'와 새로운 샤먼의 '출현'이 갖는 비체계성으로 인해 과거의 정치적 차원을 회복하는 것이 쉽지 않은 것이다. 사회주의를 포기한 몽골 정부가 전통문화의 복원을 통해 새로운 민족정체성을 추구하고 있기는 하지만 그것이 샤머니즘을 통한 재건은 아니다.

2) 종교적 지평융합

그리스도교 세계(Christendom)인 유럽의 농민들은 지역의 성인(Saint)에게 다산과 축복을 기원하고 신비적인 마리아 숭배를 한다. 남미의 샤먼들은 자신들의 영적 카리스마를 증진시키기 위해 그리스도교의 성소를 순례한다. 현대의 열광주의적 그리스도교 집회에서도 직접적인 치유와 재물의 축복에 대한 기대가 거침없이 드러난다. 심지어 가장 반우상적인 이슬람 세계에서조차도 성인들의 묘지와 유물을 성화하면서 숭배하고 있다. 불교의 민간의례도 마찬가지이다. 이런 종교현상은 흔히 '민간신앙' 혹은 샤머니즘적 종교현상으로 분류된다. 시대와 공간이 다르고, 특정 종교가 지배적인 사회라 할지라도 샤머니즘적 사유와 행동양식은 쉽게 발견할 수 있는 것이다.

그 이유는 샤머니즘이 수렵사회때부터 존재했던 가장 오래된 종교현상중 하나라는 점에서, 테일러가 개념화했던 '잔존물'(Survival)때문이라고 해석할 수도 있다. 하지만 그 잔존의 발현이 어떤 미신적 원형의 낡은 존속이라고 보기에는 너무 광범위하다. 따라서 샤머니즘적 종교현상은 수렵사회뿐만 아니라 다양한 사회, 정치적 체계에서 샤머니즘이 제 기능을 수행함으로써 다른 종교전통내에 '스며든' 결과로 보는 것이 더 타당할 것이다.

샤머니즘은 어떤 종교를 만나더라도 강력하게 그 생존을 지속할 수 있었다. 하지만 이런 지속때문에 샤머니즘을 하나의 강력한 '실체'로 간주하는 것은 적절하지 못하다. 샤머니즘의 강력함은 역설적으로 샤머니즘의 흡수성, 종교적 '융합'의 과정에서 기인한 것임을 간과해서는 안된다. 샤머니즘은 강력한 '힘의 종교'였기 때문이 아니라 단일한 교리와 교단을 갖지 않는, 즉 파괴당할 체계가 없으므로 파괴당하지 않는 비정형적 유약성 때문에 존속할 수 있었던 것이다.27)

또한 융합이라는 의미는 가다머(H. Gadamer)의 해석학에서 보듯 일방적 흡수와 수용이 아닌 상호 변화를 함의한다. 샤머니즘과 어떤 종교가 만나면 어느 정도 상대의 종교적 내용과 형식의 영향을 받으며 자기의 종교성을 변형시키는 것이다. 역사적으로 샤머니즘은 다른 종교의 민간신앙적 차원으로 스며들어갈 수 있었고 스스로 변형을 겪기도 한다.

몽골의 종교사는 이 융합의 상호적 과정을 구체적으로 보여주었다. 고대국가 형성기에 일종의 국가종교로서의 성격을 가졌던 몽골 샤머니즘에게 가장 큰 위협은 티벳불교의 도래였다. 그 과정은 순수한 선교에 의한 개종의 수순이 아니라 다분히 정치적 맥락에서 진행된 것이었다.

본격적인 2차 접촉의 과정은 정치적 입지가 불안정했던 몽골의 알탄칸(Altan Khan)과 티벳의 황교(黃敎) 지도자인 소드남가초의 1578년의 결탁에서 본격화되었다. 소드남가초는 알탄칸을 쿠빌라이칸의 환생이라고 인정해줌으로써 칸위(位)의 계승을 가능하게 했고, 알탄칸은 소드남가초를 종가파 대제자의 3번째 환생이라고 인정해주면서 '달라이 라마'라는 칭호를 주었다. 이처럼 정치적 배경하에 들어온 소드남가초는 몽골 샤먼의 우상을 제압하는 선언을 포교의 출발점으로 삼았고, 알탄칸의 전폭적 지원하에 그동안의 샤먼시대의 막을 내리게 하였다.28)

그후 티벳불교는 샤먼들의 저항을 억누르면서 몽골인의 정신적 사상으로 자리잡아가기 시작했다. 라마승들은 샤먼의 엉거트들을 불교의 호법자로 개조하는 한편 종래 샤먼들의 기능을 모두 계승해버렸다. 그 결과 몽골 샤머니즘의 대표적 의례였던 '어워제'도 라마승들이 집례하게 되었고, 샤먼들과 관계된 각 지역신들도 티벳불교의 신격과 합쳐졌다. 샤먼의 상징물들은 파괴되었고, 말을 순장하던 풍습도 사라졌고, 수태차를 마시는 풍습이 확산되었다. 몽골인들은 불상에 공양을 바치고 경전을 암송하는 종교적 생활로 완전히 바뀐 것이다.

이처럼 티벳불교의 몽골내 확산은 샤머니즘의 입지를 협소하게 만들었지만, 민간신앙의 차원에서 보면 몽골의 샤머니즘과 티벳불교의 차이는 모호하다. 이는 종교적 지평융합이 진행되었기 때문이다. 우선 샤먼과 라마승의 직능의 차이가 거의 없었다. 라마승들도 점을 치고, 예언을 하고, 치유의례와 자연숭배를 했고, 심지어 엑스타시와 주술적 행위의 연행에서는 라마승들이 샤먼보다 훨씬 더 뛰어나기도 했다.29) 지난 해 몽골 종교·문화 필드워크 때 나린텔 솜에서 만난 라마승은 전형적으로 샤먼이 행하는 종교적 직능을 담당하고 있음을 보여주었다. 마을 잔치가 벌어진 초원의 개울가에서 가정의 우환과 그것의 치유를 위한 작은 의례를 행했는데, 그 처방이라는 것이 입김을 불어넣은 사탕이라든지, 신령한 힘을 주입한 투그릭 지폐같은 것이었다. 또한 차강노르솜에서 만난 늙은 라마승은 티벳불교의 신격뿐 아니라 자연신령 로스-사브다크와 교류하고 있었다. 그는 자연신령들이 무척 강력하며, 자신에게 커다란 힘을 부여한다고 이야기했다.

이런 현상은 외형적으로는 샤머니즘이 티벳불교에 제압되었지만, 내면적으로 보면 상호 영향을 주고받으며 종교적인 지평융합을 이루었음을 나타낸다. 이런 융합이 가능하게 되었던 이유에 대해서는 쥬코프스카야(Zhukovskaya)의 분석에 주목할 수 있다. 쥬코프스카야는 17세기 몽골에 재차 들어온 티벳불교는 이미 샤머니즘과 유사한 티벳의 토착종교인 본-포(Bon-po)와 여러 세기에 걸쳐 경쟁하는 과정을 거치면서 점차 혼합된 형태였다고 분석한다.30)

이처럼 티벳불교와 샤머니즘의 융합은 한 쪽의 해체가 아니라 각각의 종교성을 풍부화시키는 결과를 가져왔다. 특히 몽골 샤머니즘은 티벳불교의 판테온을 수용하면서 신관을 발전시켰고, 우주관을 정교화시켰으며, 화려하고 현란한 의례도 도입했고, 샤먼들은 티벳불교의 신격도 섬기게 되었다.31) 이것은 샤머니즘이 티벳불교에 일방적으로 흡수된 것처럼 보일 수도 있지만, 박원길은 "어느 면에서는 몽골의 샤머니즘은 라마교(티벳불교)의 외형을 빌려 그대로 존속되어 갔다."고 분석한다.32) 즉 심층적으로는 샤머니즘적 인식체계가 그대로 지속되었다는 것이다.33)

이런 샤머니즘적 인식체계의 지속을 보여주는 사례는 몽골인들의 게르에 모셔진 신상들의 변화와 관련해서 논의할 수 있다. 종교적 정복자로서 침입한 라마승들은 권력의 비호아래 몽골인들의 게르에서 옹곤(ongon)을 치우고 대신 마하칼라상을 모시게 했다. 근대시기 러시아 짜르의 군대가 침입해왔을 때에도 마찬가지였다. 백색 군대는 온곤과 마하칼라상을 파괴하고 대신 니콜라스 성인의 그림을 걸어놓게 놓게 했다. 하지만 그 상징물들이 달라졌다고 해서 몽골인들의 믿음과 기대가 달라진 것은 아니었다. 대체된 상징물들에 대한 신앙은 과거 샤머니즘의 신앙과 다를 것이 없었다. 그것이 옹곤이건, 마하칼라이건, 혹은 니콜라스 성인이건 상관없이 가족의 보호와 목축의 안정을 기대하는 샤머니즘적 믿음체계는 변함이 없었던 것이다.34)

종교 '대(對)' 종교로 본다면 현대 몽골 샤머니즘은 티벳불교에 비해 여전히 주변적이다. 라마승들은 샤먼들에 대한 폄하의 시선을 버리지 않고 있고, 일부 지식인들은 샤머니즘의 확산에 대해 '미신'이라는 경계를 늦추지 않고 있다. 하지만 신앙민들의 일상적 의례와 신행에서 보면 샤머니즘은 여전히 지속되고 있다. 몽골의 신앙민들은 라마승을 찾아가 점을 치고, 복을 구하고, 또 같은 목적으로 샤먼을 찾아가고 있는 것이다.

3) 자연 친화적 종교성

돌이킬 수 없는 위험선을 지나버린 듯한 작금의 생태위기는 시장의 조정을 근간으로 하는 '지속가능한 개발'이나 첨단 '과학기술'의 효과적 활용을 통해서도 해결될 것 같지 않다. 결정적 파국의 예상속에 인류 생존에 대한 위기의식은 그 파고가 더욱 높아가고 있고, 파괴는 인간만이 아닌 지구의 전 생명계가 파괴의 가파른 내리막길로 치닫고 있다. 이런 위기에 대한 처방은 근본적 가치관의 변화를 요구한다. '에코센트리즘(Eco-centrism)'과 '바이오필리아(Bio-philia)'의 담론은 그런 변화의 상징적 화두로 부상하고 있다. 즉 작금의 위기의 근원은 세계관의 잘못된 방향성에서 비롯된 것이므로 해결 역시 세계관의 정정에서 시작해야만 한다는 각성이다.

이처럼 생태학적 사유의 대안적 전형을 찾으려는 관심은 샤머니즘을 비롯한 자연종교의 재발견을 촉진하고 있다. 샤머니즘은 오랜 세월을 거치면서 축적된 공존의 지혜를 가지고 있을 뿐만 아니라, 그 자연친화적 사유를 행동으로 구체화(의례화)시키는 경험을 간직하고 있기 때문이다. 이 '사유'와 '행동'의 일치라는 측면은 생태학적 위기속에 샤머니즘이 지니는 핵심적 의의를 대표한다. 환경의 시대답게 어느 종교나 자기 전통안에서 생태친화적 사유를 찾아내지만, 그것을 의례속에 행동으로 풀어내는 종교는 그리 많지 않다. 현대 생태위기에 대해 제 종교의 무능력함은 사유의 부재가 아니라 의례화된 행동의 부재때문이다. 하지만 샤머니즘은 생태학적 사유를 개인적, 공동체적 삶의 전 영역에서 의례로 풀어내는 경향이 강하다.

생태학적 사유의 측면에서 보면 샤머니즘은 세계의 '상호의존성'에 대한 풍부한 인식을 담고 있다. 샤머니즘의 세계관은 모든 생물과 무생물, 자연현상에도 신령이 들어있다는 기본 전제를 통해 상호의존성을 심화시킨다. 따라서 자연은 그 자체로 영적 세계 혹은 신령의 거주처로 인식된다. 샤머니즘 신앙민들의 이런 영적 연대성은 자연의 다른 구성원들과의 교감의 네트워크를 형성한다.

한편 '조상'에 대한 사유도 샤머니즘의 심미적 자연관을 구체적 행동성으로 만드는 한 동기를 이룬다. 하이지히는 몽골 샤머니즘은 조상숭배와 깊은 관련성을 지니고 있어서, 조상이 죽으면 대지의 신, 지역의 신령과 유사해진다는 믿음을 기술했다. 조상을 높은 산에 매장하는 풍습도 이와 관련된 것이다.35) 요한 카르피니(John of Plano Carpini)도 {몽골여행기}에 다음과 같은 기록을 남겼다. "어거데이칸은 자기의 영혼이 안녕을 얻기 위해 작은 숲을 자유로이 성장하도록 남겨두었다. 그리고 누구라도 이곳에서 나무를 자르거나 꺾는 일을 금지시켰다."36) 이런 유목민들의 사유방식에서 숲은 인간의 영혼, 즉 조상의 영혼이 거주하는 공간이며, 자신들이 죽은 후 영혼이 돌아갈 공간이다. 그러므로 숲을 해치는 것은 자신의 영혼이 사후에 거주할 기반을 현세에 파괴하는 자해행위인 것이다.

전통적 유목민들의 이와 같은 자연친화적 인식은 종교적 상상의 산물이라기보다는 그들의 생태조건에서 형성된 것이다. 인간의 삶 자체가 어느 정도 자연을 개조할 수 밖에 없는 것이지만 정주농경이 곤란했던 생태조건에서 살아야했던 유목민들에게 자연은 정복을 통한 개조의 대상이 아니라 의존의 대상이었다. 그리고 스텝에서 살아가는 인간의 힘으로는 어찌할수 없는 기상 변화, 풀의 생장, 기온의 고저는 신령의 세계에 대한 감각을 키웠다. 몽골 샤머니즘의 자연친화성도 이러한 유목적 생태조건에서 파생했다. 기후변화가 극심했던 몽골 고온의 유목민들에게 자연의 움직임은 하늘의 뜻을 반영하는 것이었으므로 바람, 천둥, 구름, 번개는 모두 텡그리와 관련된 현상으로 인식되었던 것이다.37)

하늘의 텡그리 뿐만 아니라 대지의 여신 에튀겐(Et gen)도 '갈색 주름을 가진 어머니 대지'라는 이름으로 불리워지면서 자연의 신성을 드러내는 표징이 되었다. 몽골인들은 이 에튀겐에 의해 만물이 생장한다고 믿었다.38) 이처럼 하늘의 변화와 대지, 자연의 모든 것은 신으로 살아있는 것이었다.39)

이러한 생태친화적 사유는 의례를 통해 행동으로 구체화되어 인간과 자연, 그리고 신령의 종합적 공생 구조를 일상속에 만들어낸다. 몽골 샤머니즘에 있어서 그것을 가장 잘 보여주는 것이 로스-사브다크 신앙과 관련된 의례이다.40) 로스-사브다크 신앙이 환경 이슈에 있어 중요한 의미를 갖는 이유는 로스의 거주지인 물과 사브다크의 거주지인 땅을 더럽히거나 모욕하는 것을 용납하지 않는 행동을 '의례화'했기 때문이다.

유목민들은 철이 바뀌면 초지를 이동하기 위해 그동안 머물렀던 게르를 해체한다. 그 때 우선 게르 주변을 깨끗하게 청소하고 나서 말뚝을 박았던 자리를 흙으로 다시 메꾸고(사브다크의 상처를 아물게하고) 땅을 '빌려주었던' 것을 감사하는 의례를 행한다. 초원은 사브다크의 집이기 때문이다. 한편 물도 로스의 집이므로 우유나 피, 각종 쓰레기, 특히 머리카락 같은 것을 버려서는 안된다.41)

험프리도 땅에 발을 끌고 다니는 것, 돌을 옮기는 것, 알을 가져오는 것 등을 금지한 것, 그리고 강, 게르 주변, 길, 흐르는 물에서의 방뇨 금지 등의 사례를 보고했다.42) 이런 금기사항들의 의미는 다른 생명체의 공간인 신성한 자연을 함부로 침범하거나 훼손해서는 안된다는 것이다. 유목민들에게 자연은 정복과 소유의 대상이 아니라, 철을 따라 풀을 찾아 이동하며 그 안에 잠시 거주하도록 땅을 빌려준 신들의 대지인 것이다.

또한 일상화된 자연의례는 게르를 중심으로 실천된다. 몽골인들에게 게르는 세계의 중심을 상징하며, 그 자체로 하나의 소우주이다. 그러므로 일상적 삶의 공간인 게르가 종교적 성화의 공간이 되는 것이다. 게르의 일상적 자연의례를 대표하는 것은 매일 아침에 행하는 사촐리(Sachuli) 의례이다. 헙스걸 동쪽의 샤먼 로스타이의 집을 갔을 때 그의 통나무 게르 측면에 푸른 하닥을 묶은 사촐리 도구를 볼 수 있었는데, 샤먼의 가족들은 지금도 매일 아침 그것으로 우유와 차를 네 방향으로 뿌린다고 했다. 그것은 사방의(모든 곳의) 자연에 거주하는 신들에게 바치는 제물이다.

이런 생명존중의 의례화된 행동은 사회주의 시기를 거쳐 자본주의로 급선회한 현대에도 상당부분 남아있음을 알 수 있었다. "나는 종교가 없어요."라고 말하던 젊은 몽골인들도 숲에서 나무를 꺽지 말라는 것, 흐르는 물에서 몸을 씻지 말라는 것 등 자연과 관련된 금기사항에 대해서는 잘 알고 있다고 답했다. 그것은 자연의례가 문화화되어 특별히 그 의미를 상기하지 않더라도 행동으로 나타나게 되었음을 의미한다. 하지만 그 행동의 기원은 유목문화의 전통에서 나온 종교적 상징작용이었음에 주목할 필요가 있다.

현대 몽골의 생태위기는 동북아 환경단체의 연대에 의한 나무심기 운동, 사막화 방지, 그리고 경제적으로는 지속가능한 개발 등 여러 가지 정책적 대안을 산출하고 있다. 하지만 환경위기의 극복은 몽골인들의 전통문화 복원, 샤머니즘 및 티벳불교의 자연관과 행동의 실천적 재개를 통해 강화될 것이다. 현대 환경운동이 원주민의 종교적, 문화적 운동과 함께 가는 것은 그 때문이다.

4) 역사속의 트라우마

상대적으로 소규모의 공동체인 수렵사회에서는 샤먼이 치유자이자 재판관이며 족장으로서의 역할을 담당했다. 하지만 고대국가의 탄생과 함께 샤먼의 힘은 약화되었고, 그동안 샤먼이 수행했던 기능들도 다른 종교적 직능자들과 정치세력들에 의해 대체되기 시작했다. 이처럼 국가와 제도종교의 성장에 따라 샤머니즘은 늘 주변적 위치로 밀려났고, 샤머니즘 신앙의 저변이 넓은 곳에서도 특권적 종교의 외곽에서 민중의 욕구를 채워주는 주변적 종교현상으로 머물러 있었다. 특히 선교나 전파를 통해 유입된 다른 종교전통이 정치적 결탁에 의해 우위성을 획득한 경우에는 샤머니즘에 대한 억압이 '우상파괴'의 형태로 광범위하게 전개되기도 했다. 역사속에서 겪은 샤먼의 트라우마는 다른 종교와의 관계, 그리고 근대화(사회주의와 자본주의의 발전 양자를 포함하는)의 방향에서 경험되었다.

우선 선교적 종교들은 토착 원주민들의 의미체계를 인정하면서 자신들의 종교적 진리를 전하기보다는 일방적 정복자로서의 자세를 취했다. 대부분의 세계종교가 세속 권력의 정복전쟁, 제국주의자들의 식민지 쟁탈전에 이념적 협조자로 참여하였던 것은 그 때문이다. 원주민들은 백인들의 총과 칼에 포위되어 세례를 '당했고', 집에는 피부색도 다르고 얼굴 형태도 다른 서양의 신들을 모셔놓아야 했다. 이 과정에서 샤먼들은 미치광이, 악마의 하수인으로 매도되었다.

그러나 역사적으로 샤머니즘에 가장 큰 시련은 20세기 사회주의 권력의 반종교정책의 실천과정이었다. 원래 칼 마르크스에게 종교는 직접적 탄압의 대상이라기보다는 정책적 '무시'의 대상이었다. 하지만 현실 사회주의 권력은 종교와 종교인들에 대한 무자비한 폭력을 자행했다. 사회주의 권력은 샤머니즘 전통을 '봉건적 미신'이라고 선전했고, 샤먼들은 개인적 이익을 위해 타인들을 착취하는 사악한 존재라는 캠페인을 벌였다.43) 특히 샤머니즘의 정치적 전통이 활발했던 시베리아와 중앙아시아, 중국 지역에서는 여타의 종교인들과 함께 샤먼들도 집요하고 잔혹한 탄압에 시달려 대부분 샤먼업을 포기할 수 밖에 없었다.44)

사회주의 치하의 탄압과정에서 종교인들은 누구나 트라우마를 갖게 되었지만 샤먼들이 갖는 트라우마는 보다 심각했다. 그 이유는 샤머니즘이 교회나 사원을 가지고 있지 않았기 때문이다. 티벳불교는 사원을 문닫고 라마승들을 쫓아내면 됐지만, 샤먼은 샤먼 '개인' 한명 한명을 대상으로 직접적으로 이루어졌던 것이다. 샤먼들은 라마승들처럼 조직적 저항을 시도하지도 못하고 속수무책으로 당해야만 했으며, 그 시기의 개인적 고통이 지금까지도 강하게 지속되고 있다.

벡커(Jasper Becker)는 고통스러운 사회주의 시기를 살았던 차강노르의 샤먼 곰부후(Gombuhu)의 트라우마에 대해 상세히 설명했다. 곰부후는 미신을 실천했다는 죄목으로 체포되어 3년형을 언도 받고 므릉(Mohron)의 감옥에 수감되었고, 다시 울란바타르로 이송되면서 형이 삭감되어 2년을 갇혀 지내야 했다. 곰부후가 불러낼 수 있었던 신령들도 국가의 폭력 앞에는 무력했던 것이다. 이런 경험은 종교의 자유가 다시 허용된 이후에도 오랫동안 곰부후를 괴롭혔다. 벡커가 굿을 부탁한 다음날 곰부후는 불안에 휩싸였다. 전날 밤 관리 한 사람이 그의 게르 근처를 다녀갔기 때문이다. 그는 지역 당 서기의 허가증을 받아온 후에야 안심할 수 있었다. 그 허가증에는 자유롭게 굿을 할 수 있으며, 지난 밤 곰부후의 집 근처를 다녀간 관리는 '단지' 호기심 때문에 갔던 것이라고 적혀 있었다.45)

벡커의 이야기는 우리의 필드워크 경험과도 일치한다. 지난해 우리가 직접 만났던 헙스걸의 80세 노 샤먼 로스타이도 1963년에 정치적 반체제주의자로 몰리자 자발적으로 숲에 가서 무복과 북과 거울, 마우스하프 등 무구 일체를 태워야 했다고 회고했다. 그리고 스스로를 블랙 라마라고 소개했던 차강노르 솜의 늙은 라마승은 처음에는 우리를 강하게 경계하며, 정부로부터 받은 '허가증'을 보여줄 것을 요구했다. 종교적 자유를 얻은지 십년이 넘었는데도 그 트라우마의 영향은 좀처럼 없어지지 않는 것이다.

이제 자본주의 시장경제의 급격한 유입과 함께 종교적 자유를 얻은 몽골의 샤먼들은, 현재로서는 전통의 복원과 장려 정책에 따라 어떠한 방해도 받지 않고 자유로이 샤먼업을 하고 있다. 하지만 이제는 자본주의 문화가 샤먼의 트라우마를 형성해가고 있다. 그것은 도시로의 이주와 자본주의 소비경제로 인한 상처이다.

곰부후의 딸은 아버지가 므릉과 울란바타르까지 끌려갔던 투옥의 경험은 자연으로부터 격리라는 끔찍한 고통이었다고 설명했다.46) 이는 자연신령과의 교감과 접촉이 불가능한 도시에서 샤먼들이 정상적 삶을 살기 어렵다는 것을 암시한다. 그러나 자본주의 시장경제를 도입한 후 유목민들의 도시이주가 가속화되고 있고 샤먼들도 도시로 들어가고 있다. 티벳불교의 색채가 짙은 옐로 샤먼들이나 도시적 성향의 네오 샤먼들은 잘 적응하였지만, 몽골 북부의 전통적인 샤먼들은 심각한 불안상태를 보이고 있다.

바이라는 차강노르 지역에서 무척 영험한 젊은 여성 샤먼이었다. 필드워크에 들어가기 전 필름을 통해 본 그녀의 굿에서는 영적 파워가 강하게 느껴졌다. 지금도 그녀의 힘은 의례를 통해서 발현하지만, 그녀의 일상은 무척 황폐했다. 처음 찾아갔을 때는 술에 취해 정상적인 대화를 나누기 힘들 정도였다. 도시로 이주해오면서 알콜릭에 빠져 혼미한 의식 상태를 겪는 바이라의 현실은 시장경제와 도시화가 만들어내고 있는 또 하나의 트라우마가 아닐까?

바이르의 그런 모습은 차강노르에 가서 만난 바드카와 강한 대조를 보여준다. 바드카는 바이라의 언니이자 영험한 여성샤먼 슈렌의 딸이었다. 그녀는 전문적으로 샤먼업을 하지 않았지만 바야르와 마찬가지로 영적 파워를 가지고 있었다. 그녀의 일상은 정갈하고 안정되어 있었다. 몽골인들의 전통 게르를 여러 차례 방문했지만 그녀의 통나무 게르처럼 깨끗하고 잘 정돈된 실내는 본 적이 없었다. 흥겹게 노래하고 부지런히 일하며 조화로운 삶을 살고 있는 바드카와 비교할 때, 이전보다는 돈은 더 벌고 있는지 모르지만 힘겨운 나날을 보내는 바이라의 삶은 자본주의의 트라우마를 반증한다.

이처럼 역사속의 트라우마는 샤먼들에게 오랜 상처로 기억되고 현재에 영향을 미친다. 하지만 이 상흔을 통해 샤먼 개인은 고통의 연대성을 고양시킨다. 루이스(I.M. Lewis)는 샤먼의 개인적 트라우마는 신의 부름으로 이해되고 압도적 트라우마의 경험은 신령들을 섬기도록 이끈다고 분석하면서, 그 입문을 "고통의 의례"라고 표현했다.47) 즉 남다른 고통을 겪어야 하는 샤먼 후보자가 그 고통을 극복하고 종교적으로 자신을 승화시킬 때 타인의 고통에 더 깊이 참여할 수 있듯이, 역사속의 트라우마 역시 장기적으로는 샤머니즘의 자양분이 될 것이다.

우리는 샤먼들의 트라우마의 심각성'에도 불구하고' 광범위하게 복원되거나 새롭게 창조되고 있는 샤머니즘의 영역에 주목해야 한다. 하이지히 말대로 '사라진 종교'가 다시 나타나고 있는 것이다. 그것은 샤먼이 죽고, 무구가 불태워져도 샤머니즘 신앙민들의 삶에 녹아든 믿음은 사라지지 않았음을 반증하며, '상처받은 치유자'로서의 샤먼의 슬프지만 의연한 삶을 나타낸다.

4. 결론 : 변화 속의 몽골 샤머니즘

사회주의 블록의 해체 이후 독립한 국가들이 겪는 정치적 진공상태는 문화적, 인식론적, 도덕적 혼란을 초래하고 있다. 과거의 사회주의 이념이 담당했던 기능을 대체할 새로운 이념적 정체성이 불분명하기 때문이다. 과거 소비에트에 속했던 여러 국가들, 민주화를 통해 공산당 지배체제를 종식한 동유럽 국가들에서 민족주의가 강하게 부각되는 것도 같은 맥락이다. 하지만 아직 사회적, 윤리적 질서를 형성할 대안적 이념은 수립되지 못했고, 그 결과 폭력적 민족주의가 내란으로 발전하고 있다.

이런 갈등의 이면에서 비록 부정적이긴 하지만 종교가 중요한 역할을 차지하고 있다는 점은 주목해야 할 현상이다. 즉 사회주의의 포기 이후 짧은 시기에 가장 효과적으로 민족 단위의 정체성을 구분짓는데 종교만큼 유용한 '도구'는 없는 것이다. 그러므로 사회주의 이후 신생국가들에서의 종교의 기능과 역할을 연구하는 것이 중요하다. 그리고 그런 종교적 기획의 폭이 정교회, 이슬람, 프로테스탄트, 가톨릭 등 뿐만 아니라 '샤머니즘'까지도 포함하면서 넓혀지고 있다는 점도 중요하다. 사카 공화국처럼 샤머니즘을 통해 민족정체성을 수립하려는 시도도 존재하는 것이다.

마찬가지로 현재의 몽골 정부 역시 민족정체성 확립을 중심과제로 삼고 있다. 오랫동안 강제로 잊혀졌던 징기스한의 역사적 복원과 신격화가 한참 진행중이고, 姓 되찾기 운동을 벌이고 있으며, 키릴문자 대신 전통 몽골 문자를 사용하자는 주장도 나오고 있다. 이는 총체적인 전통의 복원을 의미한다. 그러므로 몽골 전통의 중심축이었던 종교 역시 빠른 속도록 복원되고 있는 것이다.

현재 몽골은 티벳불교가 지배적 위치로 올라섰고, 도처의 사원이 복원되면서 활성화되고 있다. 라마승들의 사회참여의 폭도 넓어지고 있다. 벡커는 민주화시위에서 라마승들이 종교활동의 자유를 주장하며 뛰어들었고, 사회주의를 대체할 마땅한 도덕적 기준이 없었던 개혁세력에게 자연스럽게 티벳불교가 사회적 도덕률이자 기준점이 되었다고 분석한다. 현지에서 직접 볼 수 있었던, 라마승들에 대한 몽골인들의 존경심은 그것이 현실로 자리잡아가고 있음을 나타낸다.

이러한 변화속에 샤머니즘의 위치는 어떤 것일까? 현재 몽골의 샤머니즘은 전통문화의 차원에서 긍정적으로 재검토되고 있다. 특히 전세계 환경운동가들이 관심갖는 몽골의 생태계 보존의 차원에서 샤머니즘은 효과적 신념 체계로 인정받고 있다. 하지만 현대 몽골 사회에서도 샤먼은 여전히 소수이며, 라마승들의 종교활동과 중첩되는 폭이 넓다보니 샤먼만의 독특한 영역을 차지하고 있지도 못하다. 뿐만 아니라 벌써부터 샤먼을 트릭스터로 몰아대는 사회적 비판 여론이 일어나고 있어서, 자칫 근대화의 희생양이 될 가능성도 있는 듯하다.

현재의 몽골 샤머니즘은 '자유롭지만 불안한' 상태에 놓여있다. 그러나 이는 어느 시대에나 마찬가지였다. 샤머니즘은 시대와 상황에 따라 늘 변화해 왔다. 그 변화의 현실이 '사실'에 가깝다. 몽골 샤머니즘을 깊이 이해하려면 고대 유목민들의 과거적 샤머니즘이 아니라 새롭게 고안되고 창조된 산물로서의 현재적 샤머니즘 현상을 연구해야 하는 것은 그 때문잊다.

샤머니즘은 초원을 닮았다. 혹독한 한파와 가뭄으로 죽어버린'듯한' 초원도, 날씨가 온화해지고 비가 내리면 금새 풀과 꽃들로 가득찬 생명의 대지로 부활한다. 과거의 티벳불교도, 그리고 현대의 사회주의와 자본주의도 샤머니즘의 생명력을 고갈시키지 못했다. 그래서 샤머니즘은 민초들의 종교이다.


[주]

1) 김성례는 신들린 개인이 샤먼으로 사회화되는 이 과정을 샤먼 커리어 형성의 예술적 자기창조 과정으로 해석한다. 김성례, "신들림 체험과 은총에의 추구", 한국문화인류학 제 16집(1984.12) pp.73-85. 참조

2) Jonathan Z. Smith, "Religion, Religions, Religious", ed. by, Mark C. Tayor, Critical Terms for Religious Studies, The Univ. of Chicago Press, 1998, p.269.

3) 영화 {미션}에서 인디언들의 아름다운 성가를 들으면서 "앵무새도 훈련시키면 노래한다." 라고 비웃는 식민주의자의 폭언처럼, 식민주의자들에게 원주민들은 '인간'이 아닌 때가 있었다. 아니 지금도 그 잔상이 도처에 남아있다.

4) Jonathan Z. Smith, 앞의 책, p.269.

5) 그는 북방에서 관찰되는 사람들의 '종교'는 교리적이기보다는 실용적이며, 우리는 그것을 '삶의 방식' 혹은 '마음의 철학'이라고 불러야 할 것이라고 제안한다. Juha Pentik inen, Shamanism and Culture, Etnika, 1997, p.75.

6) Robert N. Hamayon, Are "'Trance', 'Ecstasy', and Similar Concepts Appropriate in the Stusy of Shamanism?" Shaman Vol. 1. No. 2. Autumn 1993 참조

7) Bill B. Brunton, "서구에서의 샤머니즘의 재발견", 유네스코 한국위원회, {샤먼유산의 발견}, 1998, p.24.

9) Caroline Humphrey, "Theories of North Asian Shamanism", ed. by, Ernest Gellner, Soviet and Western Anthropology, Columbia University Press, 1980, p.244.

9) Caroline Humphrey, "Shamanic Practices and the State in Northern Asia : Views from the Center and Periphery", ed. by, Nicholas Thomas and Caroline Humphrey, Shamanism, History ane the State, Michigan, 1996, pp.191-198.

10) Piers Vitebsky, The Shaman, Macmillan, 1995, p.151.

11) Piers Vitebsky, "From cosmology to environmentalism : Shamanism as local knowledge in a global setting", ed. by, R. Fardon, Counterworks : Managing the diversity of knowldege, Routledge, 1995, p.185.

12) 둘람은 "상징주의 철학"의 입장에서 몽골의 영적 문화의 본질적인 철학적 관점을 발견하려 했다. 이 철학은 물질적 존재와 영적 관념 사이의 절대적 구분 대신 두 원천을 상징적으로 조화시키는 것이었다. 이런 관점은 샤머니즘을 형이상학적 체계로 명료하게 설명할 수 있지만 살아있는 종교현상을 추상화하는 위험성이 있다. S. Dulam, "Humans, the Sky and the Earth as Symbolic Spheres in Mongolia Spiritual Culture", 5th Conference of ISSR, 1999. 참조

13) Walther Heissig, The Religions of Mongolia, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970, Preface.

14) Paul Willis, 서동진,문현 옮김, "새로운 민족지의 방법론과 문화정치학", {현대사상} 2000년 봄호, p.161.

15) Piers Vitebsky, The Shaman, p.11.

16) Morris Rossabi, "Mongolia in the 1990s : from Commissars to Capitalists",

http://www.eurasianet.org/resources/mongolia/links/rossabi.html

17) Piers Vitebsky, "From cosmology to environmentalism", p.185.

18) 유목사회에서 씨족이 갖는 권위는 현대 몽골에서도 그 흔적을 찾아볼 수 있다. 지난해 나린텔 솜에 갔을 때 동행했던 투부쉰자르갈의 씨족은 그 지역에서 명망있는 집단이었으므로 행정군수도 그 앞에서는 자세를 낮출 정도였다. 아직도 주변부 지역에서는 행정적 권위보다 씨족의 권위가 더 강함을 보여주는 사례였다.

19) D. Tserensodnom, 이선아 역, "{몽골비사}의 무속신화", 전북대인문학연구소, {동북아 샤머니즘 문화}, 소명출판, 2000, p.272.

20) 험프리도 이런 유목민들의 하늘 개념 - 천계로의 여행, 수직적 하늘 - 은 엘리아데처럼 원초적 샤머니즘의 근거로 볼 것이 아니라 구체적인 역사적 상황에서 생겨난 것으로 분석해야 한다고 주장했다. Caroline Humphrey, "Shamanic Practices and the State in Northern Asia", pp.194-197.

21) Caroline Humphrey, 앞의 책, p.201.

22) 박원길, {북방민족의 샤머니즘과 제사습속}, 민속원, 1998, pp.303-304

23) 박원길, 앞의 책, pp.288-299.

24) 박원길, 앞의 책, pp.309-311.

25) Caroline Humphrey, "Shamanic Practices and the State in Northern Asia", p.223.

26) 1990년대 이후 야쿠트족은 샤머니즘을 국가 종교로 만들려는 시도를 한다고 평가되고 있다. 그것이 비록 '백(白)샤머니즘'의 정제된 형태를 취한다 할지라도 민족주의적 정체성의 확보를 샤머니즘에서 찾고자 하는 시도는 흥미로운 현상이다. Majorie Mandelstam Balzer, "Shamanism and the Politics of Culture : An Anthropological View of the 1992 International Conference on Shamanism, Yahutsk, the Sakha Republic" (Autumn 1993) 참조.

27) 종교의 힘이라는 것이 결국은 세속권력의 후원 혹은 용인의 결과라는 사실은 분명하다. 아무리 강력한 종교체계를 구성하고 있었다 해도 국가권력의 정치적 판단에 따라 완전히 없어지기도 하는 역사적 경험은 그것을 반증한다. 예를 들면 인도에서 발원한 불교는 아쇼카의 통치때처럼 국가종교화되기도 했지만 현재의 인도에서는 거의 사멸한 종교에 가깝다. 이처럼 대단한 문화적 영향력과 종교적 엘리트들의 존재, 그리고 교리와 교단체계의 완비에도 불구하고 종교의 역사내적 부침은 흔한 것이다.

28) 박원길, 앞의 책, pp.362-367.

29) 샤머니즘적인 춤인 참(Tsam)은 몽골 티벳불교의 대표적 연행이다.

30) C.Humphrey, "Theories of North Asian Shamanism", ed. by, Ernest Gellner, Soviet and Western Anthropology, Columbia University Press, 1980, p.249.

31) 울란바타르에서 만난 남성 샤먼 바얌바도르지(Bayambadorj)는 달라이 라마와 함께 찍은 사진을 자랑스럽게 보여주었는데, 그에게 티벳불교의 가르침과 체계는 그의 샤먼업에 어떠한 장애도 되지 않았다.

32) 박원길, 앞의 책, p.367.

33) 이와 관련하여 오트너의 논의를 참조할 필요가 있다. 그녀는 쉐르파 사회에서 샤머니즘이 쇠퇴한 원인은 종교적 권력기구인 불교 승단의 압력 때문이라고 분석하면서, 그러나 샤머니즘이 더 이상 존재하지 않는 듯이 보이는 경우라 할지라도, 샤머니즘은 다른 형태로 계속 존재하고 있다고 분석했다. 우선 민중은 종교적 권위를 내세우는 라마승보다는 샤먼들에게 더 호의를 보였으며, 화신한 라마인 툴쿠(Tulku)를 일정의 업그레이드된 샤먼(upgraded shaman)으로 이해하기 때문이었다. Sherry B. Ortner, "The Case of the Disappearing Shamans, or No Individualism, No Relationalism", ed. by, Debra Skinner, Alfred Pach Ⅲ and Dorothy Holaand, Selve in Time and Place : Identities, Experience and History in N데미, Rawman & Little Field, 1998, pp.259-260.

34) 험프리는 러시아의 지배 시기 부리야트 지역 몽골인들의 개종은 다분히 '표면적(superficial)'인 것이었다고 분석한다. 즉 정교회에 들어간 사람들도 교회를 가기보다는 여전히 샤먼을 찾아갔고, 니콜라스 성인의 그림은 농경의 생산성과 행운을 가져오는 옹곤(ongon)이었다는 것이다. C. Humphrey, Teories of North Asian Shamanism, p.251.

35) Walther Heissig, 앞의 책, pp.11-12.

36) 박원길, 앞의 책, p.476.에서 재인용.

37) Walther Heissig, 앞의 책, p.57.

38) Heissig, 앞의 책, p.102.

39) 이러한 자연친화성을 강화한 배경에는 티벳불교의 영향도 있었다. 특히 티벳불교의 판테온을 수용하면서 하위 텡그리들은 각 지역의 자연신들과 융합되었고, 특별한 지경(landscape)과 관련지어졌다. 이에 대해 하이지히는 "몽골의 모든 텡그리들은 높은 산이나 급류 같은 지역적 의미를 지닌 자연현상을 신격화한 것이다."라고 주장한다. Walther Heissig, 앞의 책, p.59. 참조.

40) 원래 '로스'는 물의 주인이고 '사브다크'는 대지의 주인이지만 몽골인들은 별개의 신격으로 보지 않고 함께 작용하는 신격인 '로스-사브다크'로 믿는다.

41) 데 마르하호, "몽골 샤머니즘의 초원제에 대하여", 고려대학교 민족문화연구원 민속학연구소, [몽골과 한국 민속의 비교 심포지엄] 자료집, 2000, pp.126.-127.

42) C. Humphrey, "Chiefly and Shamanist Landscapes in Mongolia", ed. by, E. Hirsch and M. O'Haulon, {The Anthropology of Landscape}, Oxford, 1995, pp.141-142.

43) Jane Morning Atkinson, "Shamanism Today", Annual Review of Anthropology, 1992, p.315.

44) 특히 소비에트 정권은 시베리아의 샤먼들을 자신들에게 적대적인 지역 지도자들이라고 간주해서 더욱 가혹한 탄압을 자행했다. 그들은 샤먼들을 공동체에서 추방했고, 심지어 날 수 있는가를 시험하기 위해 헬리콥터에서 떨어뜨리기까지 했다. Piers Vitebsky, The Shaman, pp.136-137

45) Jasper Becker, The Lost Country : Mongolia Revealed, 1992, Sceptre, pp.172-173.

46) Jasper Becker, ibid.

47) I.M. Lewis, Religion in Context : Cults and Charisma, Cambridge University Press, 1986, p.89.



참고문헌



《논문》

김성례, "무속전통의 담론 분석 - 해체와 전망", {한국문화인류학} 제 22집, pp.211-243.

김성례, (1995), "시베리아·극동 소수 유목민의 전통문화와 현대적 변화", 서울대륙연구소,『러시아연구』2, 1995. 6, pp.177-214.

이필영(1979), "북아시아 샤머니즘과 한국무교의 비교연구 - 종교사상을 중심으로", {백산학보} 제 25호, 1979. 12.

Brunton, Bill B.(1998), "서구에서의 샤머니즘 재발견", 유네스코 한국위원회, 한국공연예술원 주최 국제 심포지엄, {샤만유산의 발견} 자료집,

Lewis, I.M.(1986), "The Shaman's Career"(Ch. 5), in Religion in Context : Cults and Charisma(Cambridge Univ. Press : London), pp.78-93.

Atkinson, Jane M.(1992), "Shamanism Today", in A.R.A 21, pp.307-330.

Hamayon, Robert N. "Are 'Trance', 'Ecstasy', and Similar Concepts Appropriate in the Study of Shamanism?", Shaman, vol 1(no 2), 1993, pp.3-25.

Humphrey, Caroline, "Shamanic Practices and the State in Northern Asia : Views from the Center and Periphery", ed. by, Nicholas Thomas and Caroline Humphrey, Shamanism, History ane the State, Michigan, 1996

Humphrey, Caroline(1980), "Theories of North Asian Shamanism", in Ernest Gellner(ed), Soviet and Western Anthropology(Columbia Univ. Press : New York)

Smith, Jonathan Z., "Religion, Religions, Religious", ed. by, Mark C. Tayor, Critical Terms for Religious Studies, The Univ. of Chicago Press, 1998



《단행본》

고려대학교 민족문화연구원 민속학연구소(2000), [몽골과 한국 민속의 비교 심포지엄 자료집]

박원길(1994), [몽골 고대사 연구](혜안 : 서울)

박원길(1999), [몽골의 문화와 자연지리](민속원 : 서울)

유원수 역(1994), [몽골비사](혜안 : 서울)

Becker, Jaspar(1992), The Lost Country : Mongolia Revealed(Hodder and Stoughton : London)

Bulag, Uradyn E.(1998), Nationalism and Hybridity in Mongolia(Clarendon Press : Oxford)

Cooper, David E. and Palmer, Joy A.(ed)(1998), Spirit of the Environment : Religion, Value and Environmental Concern(Routledge : London and New York)

Finch, C.(ed)(1999), Mongolia's Wild Heritage(Avery Press)

Heissig, Walther(1980), The Religions of the Mongols(Routledge & Kegan Paul : London)

Humphrey, Caroline with Onon, Urunge(1996), Shamans and Elders : Experience, Knowledge, and Power among the Daur Mongols(Clarendon Press : Oxford)

Humphrey, Caroline and Sneath, David(ed)(1996), Culture and Environment in Inner Asia : Vol. 1 - The Pastoral Economy and the Environment(The White Horse Press)

Humphrey, Caroline and Sneath, David(ed)(1999), The End of Nomadism? : Society, State and the Environment in Inner Asia(Duke Univ. Press)

D. 마이달 외(1991), [몽고문화사](동문서 : 서울)

Milton, Kay(ed)(1993), Environmentalism : The View from Anthropology(Routledge : London and New York)

Sarangerel(2000), Riding Windhorse : A Journey onto the Heart of Mongolian Shamanism(Destiny Books)

Wallman, Sandra(ed)(1992), Contemporary Futures : Perspectives from Social Anthropology(Routledge : London and New York)



종교인류학 전공 페이퍼(2002. 봄) 지도교수: 김성례, 발표: 정경일



칠성신으로 상징되는 뱀 이야기

우리는 뱀이라고 하면 무엇을 가장 먼저 떠 올릴까?

구약성서에는 뱀을 이 지구상에서 가장 교활한 동물로 이야기하였으나, 신약성서에는 “뱀처럼 신중하고 비들기처럼 순결하라”고 하였다.

구약성서 <민수기>에도 뱀이 나와 모세와 야훼가 자신들을 비난하는 히브리인들에게 불뱀을 보내 다다수가 물려 죽게 만든다. 그리고 다시 그 뱀을 쳐다보면 다 나을 수 있다고 한다. 모세도 청동 뱀을 만들어 그 뱀을 바라보는 자들은 다 소생할 수 있다고 하였다.

또 그리스 신화나 이집트 유적 등에서 뱀의 등장을 많이 볼 수 있으며 모두 신격화된 형태로 나타난다.

이렇게 기독교에서도 뱀을 신앙의 상징물로 보게 된 것은 고대 그리스의 영향이라 생각한다. 그리스에서는 뱀을 의약, 예술, 시와 많이 연관시켰기 때문이다.

그러나 뱀과 가장 관련이 있는 민족은 바로 우리 동이족일 것이다.

그 예로 고구려 고분에 나오는 복희와 여와의 벽화에 인두사신을 한 벽화와 뱀을 신으로 숭배하는 사상이 널리 펴져 있다.

뱀을 칠성에 비유하여 모시며 굿을 하는 제주도의 <칠머리 당굿>이라는 일곱 뱀을 위하는 굿이 있는가 하면 전국 어디서나 옹기단지에 뱀을 상징하는 주저리를 틀고 곡신을 넣어 그 단지를 업양단지라고 부르며 뱀을 가신으로 모시고 있다.

뱀에 관한 기록들은 <삼국사기>와 <삼국유사>에도 많이 나온다.

신라의 나해 이사금 때 뱀이 사흘을 울고 난 뒤 일 년 후 왕이 죽었다는 이야기며, 박혁거세 죽음에 대한 예견, 경문왕은 뱀과 함께 잠자기를 좋아했다는 기록 등 수없이 많다.

뱀은 주술적으로 재생 혹은 영생, 그리고 재물과 복을 상징하기도 한다.

이것은 뱀이 허물을 벗기 때문에 허물을 벗는다는 것은 새로운 생명체로 다시 태어 나난다는 의미를 가진다.

뱀이 집 밖으로 나가면 그 집안이 망한다는 이야기도 있으며 뱀이 나가려고 하면 못나가게 달래서 다시 집어넣기도 하였는데 이러한 행위는 바로 뱀이 복과 재물을 상징하기 때문이다.

또한 우리 신화나 전설 속에는 뱀이 사람으로 둔갑하여 인간과 정을 통하는 이야기나 은혜를 갚는 이야기와 뱀이 복수를 갚는 이야기도 함께 전해지고 있다.

십자가는 여자의 십구멍이다.






우리는 십자가를 보면 먼저 기독교를 생각하게 된다. 언제부터인지 십자가는 기독교를 대표하는 상징물이자 전유물이 되어버렸다.

십자가가 기독교의 상징으로 쓰이고 있는 것은 예수그리스도가 모든 사람의 죄를 대속(代贖)하기 위하여 십자가에 매달려 죽었기 때문이라 한다. 그러나 십자가 문양은 예수그리스도교가 출현하기 훨씬 전에 고대민족 사이에서 종교적인 상징으로 쓰이고 있었다.

예를 들면, 바빌로니아인(人)이나 칼데아인은 하늘의 신인 아누(Anu)의 상징으로서 등변십자가(그리스식 십자가)를 사용하였고, 고대 이집트인은 영생의 상징으로서 바퀴가 달린 십자가를 사용하였다. 또 그리스신화에서는 아폴론신(神)이 십자형의 홀(笏)을 가지고 있고, 게르만신화에서는 토르신(神)이 십자 모양의 해머를 가지고 있다.

인도에서는 옛날부터 '만자(卍字:범어로 Zrivatsa:갈고리형 십자가)'가 사용되었고, 힌두교에서는 오른쪽 어깨가 올라간 갈고리형 십자가가 가네사(ganesa)라 불리는 남성적 원리를 상징하였으며, 그 변형인 왼쪽 어깨가 올라간 갈고리형 십자가인 사우바스티카(sauvastika)는 칼리(kali)라 불리는 여성적 원리를 상징하였다.

그밖에 십자가는 고대 페르시아인·페니키아인·에트루리아인·로마인, 갈리아 지방이나 브리타니아의 켈트족, 멕시코·중앙아메리카·페루 등지의 주민 사이에 널리 종교적 의의를 가지고 사용되어 왔다. 이러한 십자가가 우리 무교에서도 오래전부터 사용하여 왔다는 사실을 아는 이들은 별로 없다. 심지어 무당들조차 자기네들이 십자가 즉 열십자를 사용하고 있는지도 모른다. 이렇게 되다보니 십자가는 크리스천들에겐 성스러운 물건으로, 절대적인 것으로 여겨지며 신주처럼 모셔지고 있다 또한 가끔 영화에서 보면 악령과 싸울 때 십자가는 최고의 위력을 가진 무기가 되어 악령을 쫓아내곤 한다.

또 불교에서는 십자가의 끝을 구부려서 만(卍)자로 만들어 불교의 징표로 삼고 있다. 이것도 역시 십자가나 다름이 없다 하겠다. 그러면 고등종교라 일컫는 외래종교들이 왜 십자가에 그렇게 집착을 하여 상용하고 있을까 의문이 가질 않을 수 없다.

요즘은 십자가나 만(卍)자 모양으로 반지며 목걸이며 귀고리까지 만들어 크리스천이나 불교를 믿는 사람뿐만 아니라 일반인들도 많이 착용하고 있다.

이렇게 십자가 모양의 장신구를 달고 다니는 이유는 은연중에 나쁜 악령으로부터 자신이 보호받고 싶다는 의식에서 시작되었을 것이다. 이러한 의식과 행위는 무교의 부적과 같은 역할을 기대하는 것이라고 볼 수 있다.

기독교에서 악령을 쫓을 때 사용되는 십자가는 귀신을 쫓는 위력을 가지고 있다고 스스로들 믿고 있으며 이것은 바로 우리 무교에서 말하는 신장(神將)의 역할을 하고 있다 하겠다.

무교의 신장이란 귀신을 쫓아내는 역할을 하는 신을 말한다. 십자가가 귀신을 쫓는다는 의미가 생긴 것은 바로 하늘의 별자리인 28수(宿)에서 나왔다. 동두칠성, 서두칠성, 남두칠성, 북두칠성으로 사방에 위치하고 있는 칠성 즉 28수가 바로 신장으로 귀신을 쫓는 역할을 하는데 그 표시는 십자가로 한다. 그런 연유로 무교에서 모시는 수많은 신장 중 대표적인 신장이 오방신장이다. 동방 청제신장, 남방 적제신장, 서방 백제신장, 북방 흑제신장, 중앙으로 황제 신장이라 한다.

무당들이 부정, 즉 잡귀를 쫓을 때 제일 마지막으로 하는 행위가 대신 칼이라는 것을 집어 던지고 그 칼이 십자가로 겹쳐져야 귀신이 잘 나갔다고 생각한다. 그리고 그 칼을 집어 들고 땅바닥에 십자가를 그리는 행위는 미처 나가지 못한 귀신을 다시 한 번 28수 즉 신장의 위력을 빌어서 귀신을 쫓아내는 것이다.

로마에서 예수가 십자가에 못 박혀 죽은 이유도 그 당시 십자가의 의미는 악령을 쫓는, 즉 신장의 의미로 사용되었다고 생각할 수 있다.

로마제국에서 볼 때 예수는 부정한 악령으로 취급되었을 것이다. 로마제국을 어지럽히는 예수를 바로 귀신으로 치부한 것이라 생각할 수 있다 그러니 예수라는 악령을 쫓아낼 수 있는 십자가에 매달아 처형하였는지 모른다. 그렇게 함으로써 예수를 따르는 무리들에게 예수는 인간의 가죽을 덮어 썬 귀신으로 여기게 하였으며 또 그를 처형한 것은 로마제국이 아니라 바로 악령을 쫓는 십자가, 즉 신장이라는 신의 힘을 빌려 부정한 악귀인 예수를 쫓아내었다는 논리가 성립되는 것이다.

그러나 십자가는 신장의 역할만 있는 단순한 표시가 아니다. 십자가 즉 열 십(十)자의 진정한 또 다른 의미는 바로 창조의 의미라고 생각한다.

일부 유럽학자는 십자가를 남근(男根)의 상징이라고 말하기도 하는데 정말 어처구니없는 주장이 아닐 수 없다.

우리는 한문으로 십을 ‘十’이라 쓴다. 그리고 열 ‘십’자라고 한다. 여기서 열 십 (十)이라는 것은 연다는 뜻이다. 사방을 연다는 즉 천지의 문을 연다는 뜻으로 천지창조를 나타내는 말이다.

이렇게 천지를 창조한다는 의미를 지닌 것이 바로 열십자인 십자가로 오랜 옛날부터 우리 민족종교인 무교에서 사용하여 왔던 것이다.

앞에서 말한 바와 같이 십자가는 창조의 뜻이 담겨 있다. 그러나 진정한 천지창조의 ‘십자가’는 기독교의 십자가도, 무당이 땅바닥에 그리는 십자가도, 부적에 상용되는 어떤 십자가도 아닌 바로 여자의 ‘십구멍’이다.

우리가 욕이라고 생각하는 십구멍이란 말이 창조의 구멍이라는 말이다. 여자의 음부 즉 ‘보지’라고 할 때의 ‘보’자를 비(匕)자 밑에 열십(十)자를 붙여 ‘보’자로 쓴다. 왜 이 글자의 한문에 열 십(十)자가 들어갈까? 그것은 여자의 십(十)이야말로 천지창조 즉 새 생명을 탄생시키는 진정한 십(十)인 것이다.

신라 눌지왕 때 박제상(363∼410?) 선생이 쓴 <부도지(符都誌)>를 보면 인류는 바로 삼신인 마고(麻姑)와 두 딸인 궁희(穹姬)와 소희(巢姬)로부터 시작되었다고 한다.

부도지에서 마고 삼신할머니와 두 딸이 천지를 창조하였다는 것은 바로 ‘십’ 즉 창조의 능력을 가진 사람이 바로 여자이기 때문에 인류의 시작은 여자로부터 시작되었다고 말하는 것이다. 바로 삼신할머니는 ‘십’을 가진 여자이기 때문에 천지를 창조한 하나님이라고 생각하는 것은 지나친 상상력이 아닐 것이다.

인간의 몸에 있는 구멍은 남자는 아홉 개인데 비하여 여자는 열개, 즉 십구멍이라는 것은 바로 인류의 시작은 여자로부터 시작되었다는 사실을 증명하는 것이다.

또한 새 생명을 창조하기 위해서 어머니 뱃속에서 잉태되어 열 달 동안 머물어야 한다. 왜 열 달인가? 바로 사방을 열고 나오려면 십이라는 숫자가 채워져야 하는 모양이다. 이렇게 진정한 십자가는 새 생명을 창조해 내는 여자의 십구멍으로 우주의 진리가 숨어 있다는 것이다.

대한무속협회 이종성 회장

2010년 06월 14일 (월) 08:27:05 자유방송 shs051@korea.com


우리 고유의 신앙으로서의 자부심 종교계의 거두로 자리매김하는 무속신앙


무속인들에 대한 인식이 달라지고 있다. 독특하고 기이한 행동거지와 말투가 아닌 일반인과 다르지 않으면서도 자신만의 철학과 고유 신을 모시면서 사람들에게 희망을 주고 있는 사람들로 인식되고 있는 것이다. 특히 무속인들의 체계적인 교육과 권익 향상을 위해 사재를 털어가며 활동하고 있는 한국무속협회의 이종성 회장을 만나 최근 추진현황과 무속인들을 바라보는 사람들에게 바라는 바를 들어보고자 한다.


무속신앙은 예부터 전해 내려오던 우리나라의 고유 신앙이다. 그런데 우리나라 신이 아닌 예수 혹은 부처가 오히려 우리나라에서 종교계의 선두로 자리 잡은지는 오래된 상태다. 때문에 우리 고유의 신앙을 찾자는 움직임이 최근 조용히 일고 있다. 특히 우리의 토속 신앙이 우수한 이유는 바로 과거와 현재 그리고 미래를 예측하고 판단할 수 있기 때문인데 이는 예수나 부처도 할 수 없는 일이다.

미뤄지는 허가, 빠른 시일안에 꼭 받아낼 터
무속신앙은 고조선의 시조인 단군 신을 숭배하고 있다. 즉 우리의 조상을 섬기기 때문에 다른 종교보다 잡음이 적고 우리나라 사람들에게 꼭 맞는 종교라고 한다. 우리나라 무속인들 대부분은 신 혹은 조상들의 계시를 몸을 빌어서 알 수 있다. 이 일을 할 수 있는 사람들은 역시 무속인들 밖에 없다. 역술인들도 앞날을 예측할 수 있으나 글을 풀어서 하는 것이고 개중에는 너무나 상징적이어서 그 뜻을 알 수 없거나 여러 가지 해석이 이루어져 논쟁이 되곤 한다. 그러나 우리나라 무속인은 신이 직접 가르쳐 주는 것이기 때문에 그 정확도는 다른 종교나 역술인보다 정확할 수 밖에 없다.
현재 우리나라에는 기독교와 같이 수많은 무속 종파가 나뉘어 분포하고 있다. 그러나 무속 세계의 종파는 하나가 되어 하나의 종단이 나와야 한다는 것이 이 회장의 주장이다. 하나로 묶이기가 쉽지 않은 것은 국가에 등록은 되어 있으나 아직은 정식 단체로 국가의 허가가 나지 않아서 뿔뿔히 흩어져 있는 종파를 모으기가 쉽지 않다는 것이다. 허가만 난다면 일사분란하게 진행을 하여 현재 우리나라에 흩어져 있는 약 100만명의 무속인들을 하나로 묶을 수 있고 권익을 내세우면서 활동이 가능하다. 또한 모든 일은 조직도를 통해 한 사람의 지휘 체계 아래서 움직일 수 있기 때문에 더 큰 신도들의 신망을 얻을 수 있다.
그렇기에 이 회장은 허가를 위해서 수많은 시간과 사비를 털어가며 노력해왔다. 청와대와 여야당 관계부처를 비롯 각 관련업체 드나들기를 수없이 했고 정권이 바뀔 때마다 허가를 내준다는 약속을 받아냈지만 아직까지는 대답이 없다고 한다. 정치권에서는 자기들 밥그릇 싸움에 바쁘고 시시각각 중요한 일들이 속출함에 따라 한국무속협회의 허가가 미뤄지고 있는 것이다. 그러나 이 회장은 100만 무속인들이 건재하고 있는 한 허가는 반드시 빠른 시일 안에 이루어질 것이라고 장담한다.

무속인들이 갖춰야 할 자세
무속인들은 현재 직능인단체에 등록해서 활동을 하고 있다. 무속인들도 서비스업처럼 하나의 당당한 직업이고 이런 사실만 보아도 과거 무속인들의 활동보다는 많은 발전을 이룬 것을 알 수 있다. “지금은 무속인도 은행에 가면 500만원정도는 무담보로도 대출받을 수 있습니다. 이게 뭡니까? 은행에서도 무속인들을 하나의 직업으로서 믿고 신뢰할 수 있다는 증거가 아니겠습니까?” 이 회장의 말이다. 이 회장은 허가가 날 때를 대비해서 더욱더 체계적으로 무속인들을 교육, 연수시키기 위해 충남 병천에 대규모 연수원을 건립했다. 허가가 나면 이곳에서 많은 교육이 이루어지면서 자연히 자격증 제도가 탄생하는 것이다. 그러면 자연히 무속인들 사이에서 협찬이 이루어질 것이고 한국무속협회는 전경련과 같이 국가를 위해서 많은 일을 하게 될 것임은 자명한 일이다.
강습무 또는 세습무를 받은 무속인들이 있듯이 이론 또한 다양하다. 무속인들도 이러한 이론들을 하루도 거르지 말고 연구 공부에 매진하여야 한다고 이 회장은 강조한다. 그렇지 않고 내림굿만으로 무속인이 되어서 사람을 상담하는 것은 갖은 편법과 부작용이 일어나기 때문이라고 한다. 단군신은 우리 제일의 신이다. 단군신이 내려오면 설령 그 사람이 목사나 스님일 지라도 무속의 길을 걸어야 한다. 일반인들에게 신이 내렸을때 그 사람은 몸이 아파지며 주사기가 몸에 들어가지 않고 약물치료 또한 효과가 없다고 하는데 이때는 꼭 신내림을 받아야한다.

무속인들을 미신이라면서 괄시하는 경향은 이제 달라져야 한다고 이 회장은 말한다. 무속인은 과거를 알고, 현재를 진단하며, 미래를 예측하는 사람들이기 때문이다. 사람들은 이 사실을 인지하고 그 장점을 최대한 자기것으로 만들었으면 좋겠다는게 이 회장의 바램이다. 무속신앙은 우리의 것이기에 꼭 우리가 지켜야 한다.


Walk towards them so good for the world to see


Non-inductive 27/08/2010 14:21

North Korean officials say Kim Il Sung died in 1997 or after 25,000 people executed exiled 'simhwajo incident occurs.
[Source] Kim Il Sung died in 1997 or after North Korean officials say 25,000 people executed exiled 'simhwajo incident occurs.

1994 Kim Il-sung after the death of a North Korean society, the internal changes being a process, or the caliber in the United States and President Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong-il at the center stands Carter cheosesul and feelings about whether the North visited the Carter whether Kim Jong Il what a message to cast will come if there such that the gonggaedoelsu that, but Kim Jong Il after the death of the North's paintings set to visit, would have a look at Kim's death is now one-year leave don'ts seen as rubbing olhaean in October to be late next year wall occurred in will, and at the same time inside North Korea contending powers, China and the U.S. intervention is a scramble which will remain above


Non-inductive 27/08/2010 14:22

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Everybody their own beliefs about this part of the dilemma always has a strip of human civilization, religious questions that had a veil obscured is going and that's easily to human beings at the time of human civilization and human beings shown by no human civilization, the environment, attending the show No, we did not have ready man himself, the environment is such that

So now the world number four shamanistic beliefs and religious beliefs of the ups and downs, and other people of faith through the fake ghosts spirits of the earth, it could break is coming into the human soul of man is going to drive them into darkness while his own man ourselves of a powerful spirit and the spirit of gender as an absolute belief and practice also does not try to live according to the precepts are not in trying to protect the entire human race even more so confused that this is yobul sabuldeulyi is the fact that

Satan the serpent in the Bible means that they lose too much of the body that carry human placenta is yobulsabuldeulyi

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So the level of the fusion of world religion, but a larger study by the faith of the Commandment of the universe and the earth full of the spirit of enlightenment daesamhapyukui only the Holy Spirit and the circumference is only in the absolute belief and practice that is veiled by the authenticity will

So we've got a vaguely Buddhist Christian off the hook, nor neither of shamanism is not it, all faith, so for me to first study the seonjisik keep the commandments, then the rest of shamanism Once you've experienced the Holy Spirit, and enlightened understanding of the faith and to identify pose the most go down that road is in ppareungil

Western religions look to revive the study of shamanism here bonggilri Republic of Korea East Sea beach and Martial daewangreung be understood literally in the dwelling place does not have witnessed the mysterious scene and wants to show

It's 02 clear night and the other for each country in a tree five-colored flag ward off shamanism also all the same meaning contained itneungeot and now the world's shamanic associations one by making the existing four Taejonggyo Association in cooperation with mutual benefits have to go at the same time global civilization of the walks are serious global Ancestors of the capital in a big way neokdeuleul and do not let their future capital neokdeuleul yukdoyunhoereul simply a human body must come back and rescue of human misery and suffering it is going to be a paper candle to pray is a simple and sure you boys momeurowaseo back to his human body would feel the disgrace seven emotions as human beings is not allowed raises the lives of

Enacted as it is written so the characters from the tomb of the resurrection of the dead may be judged by the Holy Spirit here is to depart from, the spirit of gender enter into the world of spirits, unless the human life and the yukdoyunhoereul haneungeot the limits of the soul is

So that you know, because large and small myeol the future when the other planets as large and small myeol and a will that life jonjaehalsu planets that are made will the planet Earth, even so you'll now not given to the planet Earth and life in time of his soul the Holy Spirit, enlightened by Spirit is the spirit of the dead and everything is going to end that says to me

And we owed the World War II before three in the capital in advance so that the soul of an object by calculating the three World War II, tells the world that will not keep executive pay is on the fantastic in that fantastic in yobul sabuldeulyi be neglected anymore, but that does not have enough time for them Nevertheless, keep trying, so was not the specter of war by becoming one of the human capital due to a failure of human yobul sabuldeuleul their own mess that made some do not realize all the descendants of the others around it, blame the wrong people who are not conscious of the spirits is like a vicious cycle of human civilization, the appearance of the bonds will matter what

These things together and it appears the fate of the country's ethnic and national power is gukgyeokyigo them and are the current state of the situation is the fact that the sky is always global nopeusinbun equally given to everyone and look down, and all human beings human and wife are reported to be such a big mistake, it is the fact that it found me!

Resuscitation weak, so step out of the human hameul are so weak they feel is the fact that when different kinds of people, but the world is the human way of clouding the Holy Spirit enlightened the path of the divine spirit of the way to the top of the global environment is very poor Sam is such a temptation giran overcome them abandon their earthly life on the fact that the determination is not without

He sent the human race if we realize how vain hasigo eopdo sustaining the earth from now as a member of the community members aware of everything you want hasigo saw the attitude of living with such a faith to live

Aksin than seonsin two at most, and seonsin from the above good and evil life and death distinction is not that the world up here it's not a religion of doing because people will the Bible as written on the somewhat inevitable Revelation as meant to be, but still that time not to Do not neglect the many opportunities to relive diligently as you pointed out, that will yeah!


It is now South Korea in Ghana which a nation seeking the will of Heaven also is not very dizzy and queer mark a transformation of the stage, facing human civilization centered'll take an object to them properly guided and enlightened and conscious by the rest of all nations and all peoples leadership not keep organized and more urgent task is going to stop them now gives rise because of global human civilization for all peoples desire of each country to pay interest on the sky eolkigo seolkigie not solve the bow so that they may have gotten the attention is

So either the people or the global one gukgadeun any nation or religion for that matter, which do not kid yourself and global reflection and chamhoena diligently on all the spiritual capital of the eokdeuleul Says Turn of the defense of their state or nation, dominated by British also caused by the war geureohago How many people are still screaming as material benefits of civilization and living segyeman suffering from transverse sahan neokdeuldo daahnini all the world is always a mixture of nine systems have so carelessly is not to Fuck

At least it's better choice is the only way

Tenjin to stay is the global space in a building a new watch that Tenjin to stay is a space that American way of a can say is going At least two in Korea Republic of Korea in the difficult Series frankly Republic of Korea bonggilri Beach the shrine to create despite oppression to power if there are Do you want to create here in the Holy Land is

Wandering the Republic of Korea Land pilgrimage to resuscitate the country after 240 days of the divine spirit to come here in India itself is facing an important meaning and value that are contained in the wrong here, some family members you're gonna hit him is if they do not cooperate

Mokryong not ascend to the Holy Land throughout the world to provide the doc been hyeoljariyigie seonmongdeuleun matter what those things the word of the Sea is a divine spirit

Holy Spirit, and gender and shamanism of the three Which one also falls faith to study the Sandfish is the fact that I know getting an absolute powerhouse of a disciple and servant this, now will not nine villages in the now absolute powerhouse to be allowed to believe that studying and faith, diligence, and be able to will

For such a rigorous, so I believe in and do resent is the thing

Shamanism and the universality of the world's cultural characteristics associated with the Mongolian Shamanism



【Contents】

1. Introduction: beyond the stereotype of shamans and shamanism

2. Shamanism is also appropriate for the concept of universality?

3. Shamanism and the universality of the world's cultural characteristics associated with the Mongolian Shamanism

1) evolved from the nomadic culture of Mongolia, shamanism and political nature

2) fusing the religious dimension

3) fixing the religiosity

4) historical trauma

4. Conclusions: Changes in the Mongolian Shamanism



1. Introduction: beyond the stereotype of shamans and shamanism

Korea and Mongolia to meet the shaman said they felt a very wise man. Age, the wisdom accumulated in the resourcefulness of life may be. However, young children get the impression that shamans were able to meet all these show that the wisdom seems to not only the chronological results. Above all, the source of the wisdom of shamans' I've experienced as an extraordinary expression of bending and crushing pain 'Psycho' to 'religious jikneungja' to establish a social identity as a tough experience, should be found in 0.1) of its own misery Sharman through the tunnel on the old man much more sensitive to the suffering of others, and others that desperately want to penetrate to what is delicate. Sharman and dialogue, and participate in rituals and comfort and peace of mind that they were able to get my (or the same state as me at the moment jikgwanhan) pain to 'know' it may have turned age.

But the shaman and the religious function of the human beauty have been less than a fair assessment. Shamanism as a religious rather than historical insane number of people were being disparaged by the grotesque phenomenon. Richard went to the New World Eden (Richard Eden) who called Canary (Canary) Islands, about the natives "(It's) inhabitants of shame, while lacking knowledge of religion or God, was naked." He wrote. 2) gregorian chanteuga no, no clean robes, priests, religion, indigenous peoples do not have a high mass with no soul, 'Animals' will was considered as 0.3) this type (native), the semantics of their own (Western) Is it the religious concept of a fair charging my client does.

Talal Asad (Talal Asad) sharply pointed out the historicity of the concept of religion, as Jonathan Smith (Jonathan Z. Smith) also apply the universal concept of religion of Western criticism. He 'religious' category of the indigenous natives, even though it was not religion, it does not have an awareness of Westerners evaluated, the premise that religion is a universal human phenomenon would apply criticized excessive 0.4) to the north of the shamanistic studied pentikeyinen (Juha Pentik inen) also called the concept of religion in the context of the north to use a different definition of religion to the religious life in the region to use than the whole Western concept of religion, theory and would have to be open noted that 0.5), these criticisms have in common shamanistic 'practical' aspects can be reassessed, and Xiamen, and his faith community, to be fair to form a ridge to see that the recognition is that the change-oriented.

Meanwhile, another perversion of Shaman 'inverted state of consciousness (ASC)' The study focused only on the flow of excess is associated with. Often the shaman shamanism of ecstasy at the time of the transient or peojesyeon and had a lot of focus is performed. In comparison with other religions as well as shamanistic ecstasy phenomenon 'education' that is true. But ahmayong (RN Hamayon) the transformer, peojesyeon, assumptions implicit in the concept of ecstasy, as pointed out that deals with conscious knows that the 'transformation' attention to the first matching the background of shamanism is still looking into state psychopathology over time represents. The dragon is probably important in shamanic trance state, rather than the shaman enters into contact with that spirit that they 'believe', said acts. Shamanism is making a shamanic state of consciousness, not in Xiamen Xiamen is a member of the community's culture is worth mentioning that the believer 0.6)

When you minimize a type of shaman buff, eventually the spirit of faith, shamanism is a pathological phenomenon is noisy and vulgar misinil. Put a personal hatred, but to serve the community in the life of a shaman in sympathy crossed the street, and the political and moral shamanism, religious and cultural context of the semantics from the local community can be understood without prejudice to the postmodern era compromises Shamanism This could be a source of religious inspiration will be.

2. Shamanism is also appropriate for the concept of universality?

Shamanism really even 'universality' does for the concept? Traditional societies of Latin America from Siberia, and in a highly industrial society to discover that in spite of shamanism is not questioned that priority can not be 'missionary' to claim the universality of world religions, and because the same concept . Shamanism and the common 'principles' or a unified 'organizational structure' no, depending on the mission's desire to overpower the batter's belief there is no intention jeongbokjeok.

In addition to the world shamanism with the same belief systems to view the pursuit of the universality of the ecological, historical, social and cultural environment that is because the liver. These 'common' error in Eliade (Mircea Eliade) and haneo (Michael Harner) can be found in the work. Eliade mad a big impact on religion in its own 'theological project' and tried to dissolve all religious traditions. So 'Ancient jeopsinsul' defined shamanism as well as historical and cultural context has nothing to do with 'primitive religious phenomena as the human spirit and communication skills were to be ecstasy. The haneoui 'core shamanism (Core Shamanism)' was also attempt to outright generalization of shamanism.

He is The Way of The Shaman (1980) globally in the front rank of Xiamen, a common theme that appears in practice to extract the core shamanism is a comprehensive technique was called the Shaman. The essence of this technique to the traditional, regional and cultural specificity was to remove 0.7)

Eliade claims and haneoui shamanism, but in a slightly different direction, history and culture have in common shelling forged. For Eliade Humphrey (Caroline Humphrey) of the criticism of GM. She is a generalization of Eliade Shamanism and the belief that the arrest information varied according to age and culture, had overlooked the historical interpretation sodomy and historical research and the social and ideological basis for the analysis of shamanism without a metaphysical variation would be critical was 0.8) in the other paper circle and the origin of the expression of Eliade never tried to find does not help, claiming that, shamanism and social reality in the context of the power of the artifacts were considered to be pointed out. In any case, can not be a general shamanism, shamanism in different historical context, two kinds of changes that must be considered is that the diversity and 0.9)

Criticism of the core shamanism haneoui Pierce Ski Vide Reve (Piers Vitebsky) is well illustrated in the paper. He haneoui core shamanism shamanism to the conclusion derived from many different cultures 'common to all people regardless of culture, will want to', the essentially shamanistic culture that does not transcend the arbitrary demolition, reconstruction, said. And the key concept of shamanism shamanism in a traditional society to a relatively inferior and failed to make believe is 0.10)

This critical perspective on today's situation, if you understand 'globalization' awareness about the issue can be referred. Beate olive ski to the homogenization of each region in the planning of globalization through a critical analysis of today's global culture might be viewed appropriately as one of the shamanistic way of thinking 'area of the mind' and emphasized 0.11)

Of course, this recognition will finally discuss the universality of shamanism itself is not to say impossible. Shamanism is completely isolated in fragmented local religious phenomenon because it is not. However, the universal world of shamanism and religious characteristics show similarities in the cultural prism of their transmission time and is expressed in the community. Therefore, when dealing with the universality of the regional variations and cultural differences should not be overlooked.

3. Shamanism and the universality of the world associated with the cultural specificity of the Mongolian Shamanism

'Mongol shamanism', what does the reality? Difficult to approach the reality that exists on both sides. First, Mongolia, shamanism is the excessive abstraction. Fieldwork in earnest last year, before sarangerel (Sarangerel) or dulram (S. Dulam) 12) and when I read the literature Mongolian Shamanism Shamanism in Mongolia is very clear and 'systematic' could be recognized. Shamanism in Mongolia, the contents of the textbook category, not Saran jeongrihan Ventrell or metaphysical framework of Mongolian shamanism reconstruction dulramui passed through the theoretical work of Mongolian Shamanism is an outsider even if they were easy to understand. But the actual field work through their 'explanation' that you want to describe as the reality of the Mongolian Shamanism, and obtained through rigorous on-site verification in several ways for interpretation whether the suspect looks like. Ancient of their data (ideal Mongolian Shamanism), or, or philosophical (metaphysical) because it was.

The second difficulty for the Mongolian Mongolian shamanism is associated with their ignorance. I returned to Korea in preparation for the 2nd field work over the Internet, chat with local Mongolian people were also students in Korea deulgwado yuhakon young Mongolians had several meetings. But most of Mongolia's young people about their religion and culture, it was found that relative ignorance. Even at the National University in Ulaanbaatar and has been writing articles on the subject of shamanism Munch chechekyiraneun a young man in Ulaanbaatar in Mongolia, Sharman said it had no reply has been sent. Then last year we met directly from Ulan Bator, we have done for shaman gutdo the 'ghost' was the does? The cause of this ignorance, perhaps most of them born and educated in the socialist period backed by the traditional religious culture gap will be caused.

'Idealization' and 'ignorance' way of avoiding the extremes of the Mongolian Shamanism is understood in contemporary visual. Hayijihi (Walther Heissig) systematically described the religion of Mongolia and now it's 'disappeared (disappeared)' would be added the kicker: 0.13), a high branch of the Hebrews had a religion, repression has been made to consider the socialist period, but , the 'disappeared' when you depart from the premise that more contemporary shamanism in Mongolia will be able to approach. Shamanism in Mongolia, I experienced may have been hidden away and then the 'new' work because it was a contemporary religious phenomena.

But that's comparable to the current religious phenomenon that is not completely cut off. Paul Willis (Paul Willis) a "cultural change has never been freely floating. It's a point where they anchored and can not fall." As he pointed out, 14), switch to a market economy in Mongolia started to be restored after the new modern Mongolia, the contemporary phenomenon of the shamanic tradition, yet the semantics of the past and will be connected. Thus, for Mongolia, shamanism, and cultural aspects of technology in the history of the contemporary observation that more effective when combined will be able to come close.

1) evolved from the nomadic culture of Mongolia, shamanism and political nature

Regional variations do not suffer shamanistic religion, but most of the religious phenomenon is showing a strong regional characteristics. The reason is that variations in the control of other areas 'legitimacy' because that does not exist separately. Shamanism is a stub Ski Vide doctrine, denomination, and no Scriptures, the priests do not have the authority so fragmented that some "caution (... ism)" can not be claimed as a regional specificity is reminiscent of shamanism 0.15), therefore a Shamanism in the region to understand the history, culture, ecological condition is to be taken into account.

Usually a personal mystical experience of shamanism rather than in response to the needs of the community understand and have been focusing on. Shamanism in the mostly small-scale community that is not silcheondoen. Shaman frequent competition with neighboring communities, and low productivity due to a request of cooperation, conflict within the community about specific issues, such as adjusting the sleep function as parents will, in the process of Xiamen will have the role as the leader of this community. In this clan, a unit of the social elite of society, the role of shaman was that some people can find common features eseona. However, in most countries the establishment of the clan is an ancient country that is integrated smoothly over the course of separation of church and Sharman lost the initiative and marginalized. Mongolia, shamanism is a little different, but went through the process of development. It is Mongolia's cultural peculiarities, traditions of the nomadic culture can be understood in the light.

Shamanism of Mongolia's nomadic culture of Mongolia, noted that the people of nomadic culture is that it was not an option. Mongolia's natural environment has formed the history of the Mongols rosabi Morris (Morris Rossabi) as an analysis of 16), essentially forced the area's ecological environment in nomadic environments, all the historical, religious, and cultural context will be derived .

First, the political nature of the Mongolian nomadic culture, shamanism has formed a strong clan. And the more complex system, the ancient traditions of the country that work on the formation and maintenance characteristics. Shamanism since the establishment of the ancient states often have a banjungsimseong 17) or peripheral notably catch tendencies are highlighted stronger than the political dimension of power is located in the midst of the historical particularity of experience is the Mongolian shamanism.

The reason is that historically pastoral nomads, because they had strong political purposes is due. This involves balancing the life of nomads to include sexual nature with the sudden economic crisis and an outsider, such as political conflict could not effectively deal with the. Therefore, to nomadic clans, as well as the chinjokil military and political nature of the group we had to go for. To maintain this liaison ideological birthplace of sanctuary founder dismantled nomadic mobility and dispersion to offset the mythical home is symbolized as a sacred mountain. And Xiamen, led by the clan as the leader of the Solidarity served 0.18)

In this regard, nomadic culture and religious worldview of shamanism in the hierarchical formation. Even if there are new shamanism is usually the most 'hidden God' or 'disappeared god exists only while the Mongolian Shamanism choegosin tenggeuriga divine hierarchy is located in the midst of powerful. 'Eternal blue sky', ie koke meongke tenggeuri (M nke K ke Tengri) is a real ritual in the center of. Absolute sex on this hierarchy of priests and religious devotion, not because the results have political implications. That settled agrarian societies, unlike nomadic life of the yidongjeok difficult to configure and stable political system and, therefore, to overcome vulnerability of mobility requires a symbolic hierarchy will have. Shamanism faith transcends the notion of a nomadic people to the development of the vertical that is not.

For example, the first part of () in Mongolia Non jinggiseuhanyi 'the natural wonders of the celestial being born in '19) has been described as, and this too will match tenggeuriui jinggiseuhanui by personal background to his rule the ideological claims of religious expression, respectively over this fundamental unity of the clan solidarity weaker sex could be achievable 0.20) for Mongolian political activism and religious rites are intertwined inseparably, the sacrificial offering of tenggeuriege the sky will and military victory, sovereignty claims, was regarded as evidence of success 0.21)

These religious and cultural characteristics of ancient shamans of Mongolia to promote their political backgrounds were entering. In fact, 12th and 13th centuries the history of the Mongol Empire formative political activities of the shaman that I worked on the front of the show. Later Tap tenggeuri (Teb-Tenggeri) known as the Mongolian daesyameon keokeochyu (Kokochu) are still politically unstable temujinege was in "the sky will tongchike temujinege the land" gives off a trust . Him, 'jinggiseuhan' Ido keokeochyuyeotda gave the title. These religious authority to justify granting the temujinui sovereignty was crucial role 0.22)

Para as well as copies of war and integration ssijokgan the Mongolian Plateau and the unified court jinggiseuhanui Becky (Beki) of the activities was found. Becky syameonjeok the title character in the best position nestled among people and syameonjeok and will be granted only with authority figures. Non Mongolia section) (216, "Becky is crowned with a white neutered wearing white sits at the head riding do. Auspicious day of the year and month engagement, and should this happen," he describes in view, the Imperial court of Xiamen jokjanggeup involved in the rule can be seen that 0.23)

Took this course in Xiamen powerful political advancement and the friction has arisen jinggiseuhanui sovereignty. As mentioned earlier, because the empire established in the political conflict jinggiseuhanui keokeochyuneun jinggiseuhaneul helped my brother will get the power made trust. We both 神 政 jinggiseuhaneun political ambitions to control the keokeochyureul murders. God's own divinity, and that anger was promoting himself as a delegate. Later meongkekan (1251-1259), the "in the sky meongke - tenggeuriga as the son of the earth, the sky is the sole ruler jinggiseuhanmanyi. ... Meongke - tenggeuriui command jinggiseuhaneurobuteo starts. "he declared. Rationalization of these political conflicts and religious shamanism to control the use of absolute power early in Mongolia shows kandeului intent geukmyeonghi 0.24)

Thus the political nature of the Mongolian Shamanism Shamanism necessarily close to the stub and covered the top, but the fact that the show is the case. Mongolia, Siberia and northeast Asia as well as the historically nomadic peoples Shamanism and the state power is often closely combined. Humphrey, Northern Asia, shamanism is also affecting the reconstruction of a particular community to be involved in the analysis of power was .25), although not want to be replaced by a Buddhist background, but syameonjeok Jin also formed a government in northern China and Mongolia, as well as the formative period in the Empire wonwangjoga quickly restored after the fall of shamanism as the historical experience of political empowerment has been.

But now the center of the Mongolian Shamanism Yakut of the Sakae (Sakha) Republic of political power, as the recovery of the past are not doing 0.26) as the reason for the change of a market economy since the socialist ideology of the past tibetbulgyo and rapidly replaced has been restored since. Tibetbulgyo the monastic system is easy to proceed systematically through the recovery of shamanism, but of an old shaman 'resume' and a new Shaman's 'emergence' Gyeseong the specific volume due to a political dimension of the past is not easy to recover. The Mongolian government has abandoned socialism and the restoration of traditional culture through the pursuit of a new national identity, and although it is not rebuilt with shamanism.

2) fusing the religious dimension

Christian world (Christendom) is Europe's farmers in adults (Saint) and the mysterious origins of fertility and blessing to worship Mary. Shamans of South America to promote their spiritual charisma is a pilgrimage to the sanctuary of the Christian. In the enthusiasm of modern liberal Christian congregations direct healing and hope for the blessings of wealth reveals without hesitation. Even in the Muslim world, even the most banwoosangjeokin the cemetery and the remains of adults, while the torch is revered. The same is true of the private rituals of Buddhism. Often these religious phenomena 'folklore' or shamanistic religious phenomena are classified into. Time and space are different, even if a particular religion is dominant sahoera shamanistic thinking and behavior patterns that can be easily found.

The reason is that shamanism has existed since the hunting community in mourning one of the oldest religions present a sense, Taylor was conceptualized 'hangover' (Survival) because you can interpret. However, the expression of the remaining old existence as a superstitious view of the pie that is too broad. Therefore, the shamanistic religion, hunting and social phenomena as well as various social and political system to function by performing in the shamanistic traditions in other religions 'impregnated' to see more results will be relevant.

Although some religious shamanism to meet to continue its survival was strong. But this last one because the power of Shamanism 'reality' is regarded as inadequate. Paradoxically, a powerful means of shamanism shamanism absorbent, religious 'convergence' of the process should not be overlooked in the will due. Shamanism is a powerful 'force' religion was a not because churches do not have a single doctrine, and that the system be destroyed because the destruction of the atypical that had not to get caught will be able to exist because 0.27)

In addition, the mean convergence gadameo (H. Gadamer), as shown in the analysis between unilateral changes in the absorption and the implications are not acceptable. Shamanism and religion meet any degree and type of the person under the influence of the religious content of his religiosity is transforming. Shamanism historical dimension that permeates other religions to enter the mingansinangjeok faced was to transform themselves.

This fusion of religion in Mongolia live show in detail the process was mutual. The formative years of the ancient states of nature as a sort of national religion, had the biggest threats to the Mongolian Shamanism was the advent of the tibetbulgyo. The process of conversion of pure susun mission, but as there was progress made in political contexts.

2nd full-fledged process of contacting an unstable political position of the Mongolian altankan (Altan Khan) and the Tibetan hwanggyo (黄 敎) Sword of the leader of South earnest in the second of the 1578 year were in collusion. Sword of the second male is recognized as the reincarnation of altankaneul sustain Kublai Khan kanwi (位) enables the succession, and the second to South jonggapa altankaneun Great Sword of the third party are recognized as the reincarnation as the Dalai Lama the title given. Under such a political background, the second man entered the Sword of the idols of the Mongol shamans overpowered as the starting point of the declaration samatgo missionary, with the support altankanui been supportive of the resumption of Xiamen were times 0.28)

Then the shaman's resistance eoknureumyeonseo tibetbulgyo Mongolians began to established itself as the spiritual ideas. Eonggeoteudeuleul Buddhist lama of the shaman as the GI Bill on the other hand, converts all of the features of traditional shamans just got passed. Courtesy of the results was representative of the Mongolian Shamanism 'eowoje' by the Dalai Lama became jiprye, Xiamen, and related to each region was combined with the divinity of God, too tibetbulgyo. Sharman became the symbol of the destruction, saying sunjang customs was long gone, the custom of drinking tea became pregnant spread. Mongolians make offerings to Buddhist religious life, dedicated entirely to a recitation of the scriptures will be changed.

Tibetbulgyo monggolnae of this position in the spread narrow shamanism has been made, but look at the level of civil religion in Mongolia is the difference between Shamanism and tibetbulgyo ambiguous. This is because the religious dimension fusion process. First, the functional differences between shamans and lamas were few. Lamas also striking that, prophecy and healing rituals and worship of nature, and even arrests of ecstasy and magical acts of the Dalai Lama has not excel much better than shamans 0.29), religious and cultural fieldwork in Mongolia last year, when the naringin someseo tell Lama met Shaman typically do with a religious function, and showed the charge. Festivities took place in the meadow brook village homes woohwan and it's a little ritual for the healing of haenghaetneunde, it is a breath of prescribing errors in the inspired candy, like a spiritual force was injected tögrög notes. In addition, I met an old lama chagang Norman Cotton, as well as the apotheosis of the natural spirits tibetbulgyo Ross - Saab was dark and exchanges. He is a very powerful nature spirits, and talked to them would give a great power.

Tibetbulgyo this phenomenon in the suppression of shamanism jeokeuroneun appearance, but look at the mutual influence of internal and receiving a religious dimension indicates that the convergence achieved. This convergence was possible reason for the jyukopeuseukaya (Zhukovskaya) is notable for the analysis. Scar Night jyuko peu came again to the 17th century Mongol tibetbulgyo already indigenous shamanistic religion of Tibet, this is similar to - Po (Bon-po) and the course of several centuries and went through the competition was the analysis of mixture is gradually .30 )

Tibetbulgyo with this fusion of shamanism, not dismantle one side of the religiosity of each resulted in a rich crystallized. Mongolian shamanism, especially the new building to accommodate the pantheon of tibetbulgyo led to the development, and sophisticated universe hwasikyeoteumyeo, colorful and flamboyant rituals were introduced, the serve Sharman was the apotheosis of tibetbulgyo 0.31), which shamanism in the tibetbulgyo unilaterally may seem to be absorbed, but Park, Won the road "for shamanism in Mongolia in a way ramagyo (tibetbulgyo) still continued to lend the appearance he was alive." he analyzes 0.32), the depth perception shamanic jeokeuroneun system was still ongoing is 0.33)

This perception shamanic practices of the system continued to show identification that is enshrined in the Mongolians' Guerre can discuss the changes with respect. Lamas as conquerors invaded their religious power under the aegis of the Mongols in the Stavanger onggon (ongon) Mach color instead of clearing the award was Nash. Modern period, when the Russian Czar's army did the same to have been invaded. White armies and the destruction of the award instead of color Mach ongongwa Nicholas has put adult put a picture of the walk. But they have changed the symbols of the beliefs and expectations and Mongolians were not changed. Substituted for the symbols of faith, the faith of shamanism in the past could be different. It onggonyigeon, Mach color it, or the family of Nicholas adults regardless of whether the stability of pastoral care and look forward to a shamanistic belief system were unchanged 0.34)

Religion vs. (对) ', going by religion in the modern Mongolian shamanism tibetbulgyo than the enemy is still around. Dalai Lama on the shaman's eye without giving disparage and Shamanism about the spread of some intellectuals 'myth' is not a guard. However, daily rituals of civil religion and shamanism From Glory is still ongoing. Mongolia's belief that local people go and play Lama, seeking blessings, and the same purpose will be to go after the Shaman.

3) Nature-friendly religiosity

Risk of irreversible or abandoned lines seem to deal with the ecological crisis is a market adjustment is based on 'sustainable development' or high-tech 'technology' through the effective utilization is unlikely to be resolved. Deterministic estimate of catastrophe in the sense of urgency for humanity to survive the coming wave even higher, and before the destruction of human life, not just the Earth system as a self-destruction is the destruction of the steep slope. The prescription for this crisis requires a fundamental change in values. 'Eco-terrorism cents (Eco-centrism)' and 'bio-pilriah (Bio-philia)' topic of the discourse as a symbol of that change has emerged. That is the origin of this crisis stems from a worldview that's the wrong direction because the resolution must also start in the world that the correction is manifested.

The ecological reasons for such an interest in trying to find an alternative typical religious in nature, including the rediscovery of shamanism has been promoting. Shamanism goes through the long years of accumulated wisdom, with the coexistence, as well as fixing the reason for his actions embodies (uiryehwa) because to keep the experience. This 'thinking' and 'action' in terms of matching the ecological crisis, the central significance in the shamanism represents a genie. Environment in the era of like a tradition in which religion he found saengtaechinhwajeok reason, but it unraveled in the rites in the religion is not much action. For the modern ecological crisis means the inability of my religion, not the absence of private behavioral rituals because of the absence. Shamanism ecological reasons, but for your personal, communal rituals in all areas of life tend to be unraveled as strong.

In terms of ecological thinking in the world of shamanism 'interdependence' contains a wealth of awareness. Shamanism is the world of all living creatures and inanimate objects, natural phenomena, for the spirit is still with the basic premise makes deepening interdependence. Thus, nature itself or the spirit of the spiritual world and is recognized as resident wife. Mean age of faith, this spiritual shamanism sex with other members of Nature is the formation of interaction networks.

The 'fathers' of the reason for the aesthetic nature of shamanism and concrete actions to create the city constitute a motive. Hebrews whether the high Mongolian shamanism in ancestor worship and have a deep relationship, the father dies, the god of the earth, in spirit and faith in technology that have become similar. Burial customs of the ancestors associated with the high mountains to 0.35), John Carlos Finney (John of Plano Carpini) of Mongolia, travel) (left the following record. "Augusta-day cars to get their well-being of the soul, a little forest left to grow freely. And whoever cut the trees in place to dampen things are banned." 36), this nomadic way of thinking in the forests of the human soul, a space that is inhabited by ancestral spirits, their souls go after death is a space. Therefore, it harms the forest to live in his own soul, post-modern world is based on self-destruction will be great row.

Traditionally nomadic peoples such nature-friendly products, rather than recognition of the religious imagination in their ecological conditions, is formed. Nature of human life itself, to some extent, but I have to convert agricultural settlement in the ecological conditions have been difficult to live with the nomads who conquered nature and not subject to modification was the subject of dependence. Step-by ourselves and the lives of human beings can not do what the weather, grass growth, the temperature of the pitch in the world of the spirit that led to a sense. The nomadic nature of shamanism in Mongolia saints were derived from ecological conditions. Climate change geuksimhaetdeon nomads of Mongolia to the natural movement of high heaven, because it was reflecting the will of the wind, thunder, clouds, lightning has been recognized as both phenomena are related tenggeuriwa 0.37)

As well as in heaven, the earth goddess of tenggeuri etwigen (Et gen) of 'Mother Earth, with a brown wrinkle' in the name of the divinity of nature while revealing bulriwoji was a sign. Mongols believed that growth of all things by etwigene 0.38), such changes in the sky and earth, the god of nature, everything was alive 0.39)

The reason for this saengtaechinhwajeok through ritual action and embodied human nature, and spirit of the overall structure of daily life creates harmony. Shamanism in Mongolia, it is the best show in Los - Saab dark rituals related to religious beliefs is a 0.40), Ross - Saab Dark faith in environmental issues has important implications because residents of Los Angeles Water and Saab acquaintances acquaintances living in the dark earth dirty or disrespectful behavior is not acceptable to 'uiryehwa' because.

Grassland nomads to move the iron becomes the meantime, stayed to dismantle Guerre. When you clean it first and then around Stavanger drove the stake into the soil again, filling positions (Saab and heal the wounds of the Dark), the land 'who had lent' to thank you and shall perform rituals. Dark Meadow of the Saab is jipyigi. Meanwhile, Ross's house, so milk or water, blood, and other garbage, particularly that the hair must not give the same 0.41)

Humphrey will attend the ground dragging feet, to move the stones, eggs and bringing them banned, and the river, close to Stavanger, long, flowing Pissing Water restrictions have reported such cases 0.42) that The meaning of taboo, the sacred space of the other creatures of nature involves abuse or should not be compromised. Nomadic people conquest of nature and the ownership of the subject, but the pool of iron in search of land and leased it to live in the moment is daejiin of the gods.

The qualified nature everyday rituals are practiced around Stavanger. Mongolian ger to the symbolic center of the world, and is itself a microcosm of. Therefore, the religious sanctification of everyday life, space, Stavanger will be the space. Stavanger is the representative of a routine nature ritual every morning, doing sacholri (Sachuli) is courtesy. Roaster of the shaman's house east of heopseugeol When he logs on the blue side of Stavanger hadakeul sacholri tool was able to tie, Xiamen, every morning, the family now as it was the milk and tea were scattered in four directions. It's all over the place (all places) in nature is a living sacrifice to the gods.

This ritual of respect for life through qualified action when a socialist to capitalist geupseonhoehan In modern times, was found to be much left. "I do not have a religion." He also talked with the young Mongol not to perch like a tree in the forest, flowing water, etc. not to wash the body related to the nature and knows a lot about the taboos, said. It is a natural courtesy, especially those in the cultural meaning of the above hwadoeeo not even appear to have been acting mean. However, the origin of the action from the nomadic culture, traditions and religious symbols have been working is worth noting.

Northeast of the ecological crisis in modern Mongolian environmental group planting trees by the Solidarity movement, desertification, and economically sustainable development of various policy alternatives are calculated. However, environmental crisis, to restore the traditional culture of the Mongolians, shamanism and tibetbulgyo the nature and behavior will be enhanced through practical resume. The modern environmental movement, indigenous religious and cultural movement that is not going along with.

4) historical trauma

A relatively small community of hunting societies and the Shaman healer role as chief judge, and was responsible. But with the birth of the ancient states has weakened the power of Xiamen, Xiamen been performed on the feature with some other religious function began to be replaced by political forces. Thus, depending on the growth of national and institutional religion, Shamanism is always pushed to the peripheral location and consequently, a broad base of shamanistic religion outside of religion in places of privilege, to fill the needs of the people remained in the peripheral religious phenomena. Seongyona flowing through radio, especially the different religious traditions and political superiority is obtained by conspiring to suppress the shamanism 'iconoclastic' has been deployed extensively in the form of. Traumas experienced in the history of the shamans relationship with other religions, and modernization (including both the development of socialism and capitalism that) has been experienced in the direction of.

First Missionary Indigenous religions recognize the semantics of religious truth and convey their conquerors, rather than as unilateral gestures. Most of the world's secular religion of power and conquest, colonial imperialist who had participated in the tournament that it is an ideological as collaborators. The natives are white people, guns and knives Baptist encompass the 'inspector', the house faces a different skin color different forms of the gods of the West was forced to mosyeonot. In this process, the interrogation of Xiamen, was sold by an agent of the devil.

But the biggest trials in history shamanistic power, Counter-Statement of the 20th century, socialism was a practical course. Karl Marx Religion is the original target of repression rather than direct policy 'Ignore' was the target. But the reality of socialist power, religion and the wanton violence perpetrated against religious people have. The shamanistic tradition of socialist power, 'feudal superstition' as advertised, and Xiamen, the exploitation of others for personal gain a vicious campaign being waged 0.43), especially the political traditions of shamanism in Siberia and Central Asia were active, the other Chinese regions too insistent with the religion of the brutal suppression of Xiamen Xiamen plagued most were forced to give up to 0.44)

Under socialism, the suppression of religious people in Xiamen, but they have anyone with trauma trauma was more severe. The reason is that shamanism is because the church did not have temples. Soon after the temple of the Dalai Lama tibetbulgyo but inside, Shaman Shaman 'personal' one by one directly into the target will be a perceptible shift. Sharman, like the Dalai Lama does not try to organized resistance must be slaughtered was concerned, the time constant of the personal pain is still strong.

Bekkeo (Jasper Becker) chagang Norman lived a painful period of socialism, Xiamen gombuhu (Gombuhu) explained in detail about the trauma. Gombuhuneun superstitious practice has been arrested and indicted for being sentenced to three years meureung (Mohron) were sentenced to prison for, as feed back to Ulan Bator was cut two years older brother had to live trapped. They were able to invoke spirits gombuhuga violence in front of the nation's armed forces will have. This experience allowed the freedom of religion long after the re-plagued gombuhureul. I asked the next day were on gut bekkeoga gombuhuneun anxiety. The night before a man and his administration would never go near Stavanger. He received per area until the year of the permit could be relieved. The permit can gut a free and a visit here last night near the house gombuhuui management 'just' curiosity was written because he went to 0.45)

Bekkeoui story is consistent with our experience of fieldwork. Heopseugeolui last 80 years we have met no direct Xiamen Ido Roaster in 1963 as a political dissident activist molrija mubok voluntarily went to the forest and the north and the mirror, the mouse has to burn off half-recalled any such weapons. And introduced himself as the Black Lama Lama chagang old Norman cotton balls for the first time, we strengthen the border, and received from the government 'permit' was required to show. Those on the street more than a decade of religious freedom, although the impact of the trauma will not go away rarely.

Now, the sudden influx of capitalist market economy and religious freedom was obtained with shamans in Mongolia at the present time to restore and promote policies based on the traditional way, without any industry has been free of Xiamen. But now the capitalist culture of the shamans are going to have formed in trauma. It's two weeks into the city and the damage to the economy is consumer capitalism.

Ulaanbaatar gombuhuui meureunggwa father to daughter the experience of incarceration kkeulryeogatdeon isolation from nature, the terrible suffering that was explained 0.46) interaction and contact with the natural spirit that can not be hard to live a life in the city of Xiamen suggests that normally should. However, the introduction of capitalist market economy of the Bedouin city of Xiamen has accelerated this week as they are entering the city. Tibetbulgyo a deep yellow color of the urban nature of the neo-shaman or shaman, but they adapted well, and Mongolia in the north of the traditional shamans are showing severe anxiety state.

By the very power lies in chagang Norman was a young woman shaman. Prior to fieldwork through the film guteseoneun spiritual power of this She strongly felt. She is expressed through the power of ritual, but her life was a very desolate. When you first showed up drunk and can barely break was a normal conversation. Rick moved to the city of el alcohol while shaking out the state Bar in LA The reality of suffering and the urban market economy, creating yet another trauma not you see?

Le Bar was like to go to the chagang Norman Kawaguchi met Islamabad shows a stark contrast. By car in LA in Islamabad's sister and the power lies women syurenui daughter Sharman. She did not specialize in Xiamen bayareuwa up as had the spiritual power. Her life was a jeonggalhago stable. Many of the traditional Mongolian ger a log of her visits, but clean and well-appointed interior Guerre had never seen. Merrily singing and working diligently to live in harmony when compared to Islamabad Kawaguchi, are making more money than before, but to send a tough day to day life of the Bar in LA to disprove the trauma of capitalism.

Historical traumas such as old scars that will be remembered for a shaman to influence the current. But through the scar Xiamen individuals suffering enhancing the liaison. Lewis (IM Lewis) is the shaman's personal trauma is understood as God's call to the experience of overwhelming trauma, was led by the Spirit to serve as analysis, the introduction to "Courtesy of the pain," he said represented 0.47) that suffers a peculiar Xiamen is a candidate to overcome the pain and when to sublimate their own religious suffering of others to participate more in depth, as the trauma in the history of shamanism in the long term also will be nourishing.

The severity of the trauma of our shamans' Despite being extensively restored or newly created should be noted that in the realm of shamanism. Hayijihi say, 'disappeared' religion will be appearing again. It's a dead shaman, shamanism shaman loses faith that burned in the lives of civil Melting disprove faith and did not disappear, 'wounded healer' shows life as the Shaman's sad but resolute.


4. Conclusions: Changes in the Mongolian Shamanism

Independence after the collapse of the socialist block countries undergoing political vacuum, the cultural, epistemological, and moral confusion has been caused. In charge of the socialist ideology of the past to replace the function is unclear, because the new ideological identity. Belonged to the Soviet past, many countries, democratic governance through the Communist system in Eastern Europe jongsikhan nationalism is a strong incidence of learning to be. But still, the social and ethical order form did not develop an alternative ideology, violent nationalism, the result has been developed into a civil war.

Although the negative side of this conflict, but religion has an important role in the phenomenon that is to be noted. In a short period after the abandonment of socialism, the most effective to build a separate religious identity of national units as a useful 'tool' that will not. Therefore, since the new National Socialist deuleseoui to study the role and function of religion is important. Planning and the width of such a religious Orthodox, Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, etc., as well as 'shamanism' has even been extended to include a viscosity is important. Sakae Republic of shamanism as an attempt to establish the identity of the peoples exist.

Likewise, the Mongolian government also currently establishing a national identity has adhered to the central task. Force to restore long-forgotten history and divinity jinggiseuhanui mad while underway, 姓 campaigned to recover, and the traditional Mongolian script and Cyrillic characters, we should instead claim that is coming. This means that the overall restoration of tradition. Therefore, Mongolia was a pillar of traditional religion is also being restored quickly sokdorok.

Mongolia is currently the dominant position tibetbulgyo olraseotgo, as throughout the restoration of the temple has been activated. Lamas of the wider social participation is the mob. Becker's democracy demonstrations by lamas from claiming freedom of religion and jumped into action, to replace the socialist reformers did not deserve to have the moral standards of social morality and the natural point of reference was tibetbulgyo analysis. Was able to look directly at the local, Mongolians' respect for the Dalai Lama, it indicates that becoming a reality.

The location of these changes, what does shamanism in? Shamanism in Mongolia in terms of the traditional culture has been positively reviewed. Environmental activists around the world with particular interest in preserving the ecosystem of Mongolia, shamanism in terms of belief systems has been recognized as effective. But in modern Mongolian society, shamans are still a minority, the Dalai Lama's religious activities and the overlap width is wide I have no shaman occupies an area less than unique. Already a trickster as well as a drive from the Xiamen case occurring in the social critics, jachit modernization also seems likely to become victims of.

Mongolia, shamanism is the current 'free but insecure' state lies. However, it was the same everywhere at any age. Shamanism is always based on the times and circumstances have changed. The reality of change 'that' close to. To understand the depth of the Mongolian Shamanism Shamanism is not an ancient nomadic gwageojeok new products designed and created as a contemporary phenomenon of shamanism have to forget what it's about.

Shamanism resembles a meadow. As severe drought, cold and dead 'like' the grasslands, the weather is getting warm rains quickly filled with grass and flowers to the resurrection of life to the earth. Tibetbulgyo of the past, and all of modern socialism and capitalism have failed to deplete the vitality of shamanism. So, shamanism is a religion of the grassroots.


[Note]

1) Kim Sung cases possessed by individuals that have socialized as Xiamen, Xiamen process of forming an artistic career in the creative process, he shall be interpreted. Gimseongrye, "sindeulrim experience and the pursuit of grace", Cultural Anthropology, 16th Korea House (1984.12) pp.73-85. Reference

2) Jonathan Z. Smith, "Religion, Religions, Religious", ed. by, Mark C. Tayor, Critical Terms for Religious Studies, The Univ. of Chicago Press, 1998, p.269.

3) Mission) (from the movie while listening to the Indians of the beautiful hymn, "if you trained parrot sings." The verbal abuse was like laughing colonialist, colonialist who indigenous peoples 'human' could not come. No, still remain around the afterimage.

4) Jonathan Z. Smith, the previous book, p.269.

5) He is found in the north of the people 'religion' is a practical rather than doctrinal ever, we do it 'our way of life' or 'philosophy of mind' would propose should be called. Juha Pentik inen, Shamanism and Culture, Etnika, 1997, p.75.

6) Robert N. Hamayon, Are "'Trance', 'Ecstasy', and Similar Concepts Appropriate in the Stusy of Shamanism?" Shaman Vol. 1. No. 2. See Autumn 1993

7) Bill B. Brunton, "The Rediscovery of shamanism in the West", UNESCO Korea, (Sharman heritage discovery), 1998, p.24.

9) Caroline Humphrey, "Theories of North Asian Shamanism", ed. by, Ernest Gellner, Soviet and Western Anthropology, Columbia University Press, 1980, p.244.

9) Caroline Humphrey, "Shamanic Practices and the State in Northern Asia: Views from the Center and Periphery", ed. by, Nicholas Thomas and Caroline Humphrey, Shamanism, History ane the State, Michigan, 1996, pp.191-198.

10) Piers Vitebsky, The Shaman, Macmillan, 1995, p.151.

11) Piers Vitebsky, "From cosmology to environmentalism: Shamanism as local knowledge in a global setting", ed. by, R. Fardon, Counterworks: Managing the diversity of knowldege, Routledge, 1995, p.185.

12) dulrameun "symbolism, philosophy," Mongolia's spiritual culture from the perspective of a philosophical point of view of the nature sought to discover. This philosophy is the notion of material existence and spiritual rather than nine minutes between the two sources of absolute harmony was to symbolically. This view of shamanism as a metaphysical system can be explained clearly, but a living religion, the phenomenon may lead to an abstraction. S. Dulam, "Humans, the Sky and the Earth as Symbolic Spheres in Mongolia Spiritual Culture", 5th Conference of ISSR, 1999. Reference

13) Walther Heissig, The Religions of Mongolia, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970, Preface.

14) Paul Willis, the Alpha, Munhyeon Translated, "a new methodology and the Cultural Politics of Ethnography," Spring 2000) (modern history, p.161.

15) Piers Vitebsky, The Shaman, p.11.

16) Morris Rossabi, "Mongolia in the 1990s: from Commissars to Capitalists",

http://www.eurasianet.org/resources/mongolia/links/rossabi.html

17) Piers Vitebsky, "From cosmology to environmentalism", p.185.

18) with a prestigious clan in nomadic societies in the modern Mongolian can be found in the trail. When cotton was accompanied last year tubuswikjareugalui narintel clans in the region the reputation of the group in front of the military administration yieoteumeuro lower position, respectively. Administrative authority in the peripheral regions are still more than the authority of the clan was an example of strength.

19) D. Tserensodnom, Lee, Sun station, "(Non) of the Mongolian myth", Chonbuk National University Humanities Research Center, (Northeast) shamanistic culture, calling Publishing, 2000, p.272.

20) Humphrey, the concept of a heaven of these nomadic people - a trip to heaven, vertical sky - like a primitive Shamanism Eliade's view, not based on concrete historical analysis of the situation should be formed in the said. Caroline Humphrey, "Shamanic Practices and the State in Northern Asia", pp.194-197.

21) Caroline Humphrey, the previous book, p.201.

22) bakwongil, shamanism and ceremonies of the north (conventions), minsokwon, 1998, pp.303-304

23) bakwongil, the previous book, pp.288-299.

24) bakwongil, the previous book, pp.309-311.

25) Caroline Humphrey, "Shamanic Practices and the State in Northern Asia", p.223.

26) Since the 1990s, the country yakuteujokeun shamanism as a religion should attempt to create the rating is. Although it's '100 (白) shamanism' takes the form of a refined matter of nationalist identity, trying to ensure you are looking for in shamanism is an interesting phenomenon. Majorie Mandelstam Balzer, "Shamanism and the Politics of Culture: An Anthropological View of the 1992 International Conference on Shamanism, Yahutsk, the Sakha Republic" (Autumn 1993) reference.

27) the power of religion to the secular power, in the end result of the support or tolerate the fact that is obvious. Even if a powerful religious system was the configuration of state power completely disappears at the discretion of the political to the historical experience to disprove it. For example, Buddhism originated in India during the reign of Ashoka, but as a nation may jonggyohwa almost extinct in today's India is akin to religion. Thus the presence of a great cultural influence and the religious elite, and the doctrines and denominational system, despite the complete history of religions is a common internal ups and downs.

28) bakwongil, the previous book, pp.362-367.

29) Shamanism a chumin true (Tsam) tibetbulgyo the representative of Mongolia, is arrested.

30) C. Humphrey, "Theories of North Asian Shamanism", ed. by, Ernest Gellner, Soviet and Western Anthropology, Columbia University Press, 1980, p.249.

31) Sharman bayambadoreuji men met in Ulan Bator (Bayambadorj) with the Dalai Lama, and proudly showed a picture of him and the systematic teaching of tibetbulgyo up his shaman did not have any disability.

32) bakwongil, the previous book, p.367.

33) In this regard, the Haute-you need to refer to the discussion. She caused the decline of shamanism in swereupa social organization of the religious authority of the Buddhist Sangha, while analysis of pressure because of, but shamanism is no longer seemed to exist even if not, continue to exist with other forms of shamanism have analyzed said. First, the people of Xiamen, rather than a religious authority to the Dalai Lama put forward were more favorable, hwasinhan ramain tulku (Tulku) of the schedule has been upgraded to Xiamen (upgraded shaman) because of the understanding. Sherry B. Ortner, "The Case of the Disappearing Shamans, or No Individualism, No Relationalism", ed. by, Debra Skinner, Alfred Pach Ⅲ and Dorothy Holaand, Selve in Time and Place: Identities, Experience and History in N, Demi, Rawman & Little Field, 1998, pp.259-260.

34) Humphrey buriyateu region of Russia dominated the time of the conversion of Mongolia as there 'surface (superficial)' is said were analyzed. People entering the Orthodox Church went to the top, rather than looking for still Sharman, Nicholas pictures of adults in agricultural productivity and bring good luck onggon (ongon) is was. C. Humphrey, Teories of North Asian Shamanism, p.251.

35) Walther Heissig, the previous book, pp.11-12.

36) bakwongil, the previous book, p.476. Jaeinyong from.

37) Walther Heissig, the previous book, p.57.

38) Heissig, the previous book, p.102.

39) The natural affinity of the effect was enhanced background tibetbulgyo. In particular, while accepting the Pantheon of tibetbulgyo tenggeurideuleun each sub-region was fused with the nature of God, a special border (landscape), and were in relation. We know about the high Hebrews the "high mountains of Mongolia, all tenggeurideuleun regional Torrent meaning of divinity is a natural phenomenon." He argues. Walther Heissig, the previous book, p.59. Reference.

40) The original 'Ross' is the owner of the water' Saab Dark 'is the owner of the land in Mongolia is not as distinct divinity to work together singyeokin Ross - Saab Dark' to believe.

41) de Mar haho, "against my plains of Mongolia, shamanism," Folklore Research Institute of Korean Culture, Korea University, [Mongolia and Korea Comparative Folklore Symposium] Proceedings, 2000, pp.126.-127.

42) C. Humphrey, "Chiefly and Shamanist Landscapes in Mongolia", ed. by, E. Hirsch and M. O'Haulon, (The Anthropology of Landscape), Oxford, 1995, pp.141-142.

43) Jane Morning Atkinson, "Shamanism Today", Annual Review of Anthropology, 1992, p.315.

44), especially the shamans of Siberia, the Soviet regime hostile to their own local leaders have sought to explicitly ask for it be considered a more severe crackdown. They were expelled from the shamans of the community, even to me that you had to drop from a helicopter to test. Piers Vitebsky, The Shaman, pp.136-137

45) Jasper Becker, The Lost Country: Mongolia Revealed, 1992, Sceptre, pp.172-173.

46) Jasper Becker, ibid.

47) I.M. Lewis, Religion in Context: Cults and Charisma, Cambridge University Press, 1986, p.89.



References



"Paper"

Gimseongrye, "shamanistic traditions of discourse analysis - deconstruction and Prospects", () Article 22 of Korea House Cultural Anthropology, pp.211-243.

Gimseongrye, (1995), "Siberia, the Far East a few Bedouin traditional culture and modern developments," Research Institute, Seoul continent, 『Russian Studies 2, 1995. 6, pp.177-214.

Yipilyoung (1979), "South Asia A Comparative Study of Shamanism and uneducated Korea - Focusing on religious thought,") (White Mountain Gazette No. 25, 1979. 12.

Brunton, Bill B. (1998), "Shamanism in the West rediscovered", UNESCO Korea, South Korea hosted the International Symposium on Performance Institute, found) (syamanyusanui materials,

Lewis, IM (1986), "The Shaman's Career" (Ch. 5), in Religion in Context: Cults and Charisma (Cambridge Univ. Press: London), pp.78-93.

Atkinson, Jane M. (1992), "Shamanism Today", in ARA 21, pp.307-330.

Hamayon, Robert N. "Are 'Trance', 'Ecstasy', and Similar Concepts Appropriate in the Study of Shamanism?", Shaman, vol 1 (no 2), 1993, pp.3-25.

Humphrey, Caroline, "Shamanic Practices and the State in Northern Asia: Views from the Center and Periphery", ed. by, Nicholas Thomas and Caroline Humphrey, Shamanism, History ane the State, Michigan, 1996

Humphrey, Caroline (1980), "Theories of North Asian Shamanism", in Ernest Gellner (ed), Soviet and Western Anthropology (Columbia Univ. Press: New York)

Smith, Jonathan Z., "Religion, Religions, Religious", ed. by, Mark C. Tayor, Critical Terms for Religious Studies, The Univ. of Chicago Press, 1998



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Wallman, Sandra (ed) (1992), Contemporary Futures: Perspectives from Social Anthropology (Routledge: London and New York)



Religious anthropology major paper (2002. Spring) Advisor: gimseongrye, announced: jeonggyeongil



Chilseong God symbolized by a snake story

If the snake is first and foremost, we want to take it floats?

In the Old Testament, the most cunning animals on earth snake stories, but in the New Testament "cautious as serpents and as innocent as Doves" He was.

The Old Testament "Numbers> even snakes have shown themselves to blame the Lord of Moses and the Hebrews inherited a number of Japanese die makes bulbaemeul sent. And again, staring at the snake, it could be better. Moses made a bronze snake, the snake could relive all those who were watching.

Greek myth and ancient Egyptian ruins, etc. You can see a lot of snakes appear in encrypted form shows all the Godhead.

In the snake as a symbol of Christian faith, so as to see to think that the influence of ancient Greece. In Greece the snake medicine, art, poetry and much was attributed to association.

However, snakes are most relevant to our nation that will dongyijokil.

The example shown in tomb paintings yeowaui Fuxi and pharyngeal wall with a snake god worshiped as a god idea prevails.

We care for snakes by comparing Chilseong gut of the island "chilmeori danggut entitled" Seven snakes gutyi cares if you have a snake in a jar of pottery anywhere in the country to symbolize the pumpin jujeori put goksin eopyangdanjirago just called it a snake As the trail is to invite.

A record of the snake "Tang> and" Samguk> also are many more.

Sell it for three days of the Silla Silla snake crying when I died after one year's end, after the king, bakhyeokgeose foreseen for the death, gyeongmunwang liked to sleep with the snakes, including the records are numerous.

Your corn snake, or eternal life, and to symbolize wealth and blessings.

This is because the snake off transgressions transgressions to take it off again with a new life that is meaningful and I-was born.

A snake falls out of the house leave the house to get out the story and the snake was not putting these things back dalraeseo 못나가게 these actions because it strikes a blessing and a symbol of wealth.

In addition, we changed into myth and legend inside the snake people through human and affection pay off story or stories and the grace of a snake with multiple stories have been told to pay back.

Women's Cross sipgumeongyida.






We think the cross is the Christian view. When the Christian cross, representing buteoinji monopoly and became a symbol.

The cross has been used as a symbol of Christianity that Jesus Christ redeems the sins of all men (代 赎) because he's dead is to be hung on the cross. However, the cross pattern of Jesus long before the advent of Christianity among the ancient peoples were used as religious symbols.

For example, babilroniahin (人) and Chaldeans in the sky god Anu (Anu) as a symbol of deungbyeonsipjaga (Greek cross) was used, the ancient Egyptians as a symbol of eternal life with wheels was used as a cross. In Greek mythology, also ahpolronsin (神) of the Cross Hall (笏) possession, and Germanic mythology, toreusin (神) is a cross-shaped with a hammer.

In India since ancient times' swastika (卍 字: Sanskrit Zrivatsa: galgorihyeong crosses) were used in Hindu right shoulder elevated cross galgorihyeong ganesa (ganesa) called a symbol of the male principle, and that the left premise Cain Southampton climbed shoulder cross bar galgorihyeong seutika (sauvastika) Carly (kali) called feminine principle was a symbol.

Other cross the ancient Persians, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Romans, Etruscan, Gallic Celts of Britannia province or, in places like Mexico, Central America, Peru, 42 people have been used widely with religious significance. In this cross, we atheists have been using for a long time know that they do not much. Even the cross that is psychic, even their own people and may be used to criss-cross. People of this Christian holy cross doedaboni things, the new shares is considered to be absolute as has been enshrined as a look at the movies, sometimes when we fight evil with the power of the cross is the best weapon is to be strong out evil spirits.

The Buddhist can bend the ends of the cross 10000 (卍) has adhered to the party made a sign of Buddhism. It also will not cross a difference in Ghana. The godeungjonggyora referred to the cross so obsessed with foreign religions and why they think the commercial and can not get the question.

Nowadays, cross-Ghana 10000 (卍) banjimyeo shaped necklace and earrings made up of Christians and believers of Buddhism, as well as many ordinary people are wearing.

This cross-shaped ornaments hung from attending because they are protected secretly want the bad spirits from the start would have been unconscious. These rituals and acts as a talisman of the atheists would expect the role can be seen.

Used to chase evil spirits from the Christian cross, would have the power to chase the ghosts of themselves atheists believe in what we say, and this kidney (神 将), and lies in the role.

Atheist role of the kidney is the exorcist is a god. The cross means that anything like chasing a ghost of that heaven byeoljariin 28 Wed (宿) came from. Dongduchilseong, rush Chilseong, namduchilseong, surrounded by the Big Dipper is located at number 28, right kidney Chilseong that role to chase the demons that appear to the cross. Because of this, is enshrined in the number of uneducated representatives of kidney kidney kidney is the triangle relation. Cheongjesinjang Eastern, Southern jeokje kidney, kidney West Baekje, Northern heukjesinjang, referred to the center of the emperor kidney.

Shamans were negative, ie, when evil spirits come after the last act of the best things instead of plunging the knife kalyiraneun be superimposed as a cross was good ghost thinks. And he picked up a knife to draw a cross on the ground did not get out of it that a ghost activity once again Wed 28 of the power of the kidney would have saved exorcist.

Rome crucified Jesus died on the reason why the meaning of the Cross at that time to chase the evil spirits that have been used in the meaning of the kidney can be considered.

In view of the Roman Empire, Jesus would have been regarded as unclean spirits. Roman Empire and the mess that he can only assume so chibuhan ghosts to exorcise the demons called Jesus, you can crucify may be sure. By doing so, the followers of Jesus to the Jesus of the human spirit and make the leather cover and Sun is also the Roman Empire, not the execution of his right to chase evil spirits cross, the height of the power of God that drove him to borrow illegal akgwiin logic will be established.

However, the kidney's role in the cross is not just a show. Cross the 10 10 (十) another party means a true sense of the world thinks that.

Some European scholars on the cross, the penis (男 根) is a symbol of ridiculous to have to say can not be claimed.

As we Chinese sipeul '十' is written. And 10 '10' is growing. Where 10 10 (十) is a means that opens. That opens everywhere on earth means the door opens and stalwart Creation.

This created the heavens and that it is meaningful as it crosses yeolsipjain long time ago since we've been using the national religion is atheist.

As mentioned earlier, the creative will of the cross is embedded. However, the real creation of the world's 'cross' the cross of Christianity, the shaman crosses drawn on the ground, commonly used in negative rather than a cross, just a woman's 'sipgumeong' is.

We think that sipgumeongyiran yokyirago right of the hole says created. That is the grave of her 'look' when you say 'Bo' non-characters (匕) party under the yeolsip (十) cut paste 'Bo' letter writing. Why is this letter to the Chinese 10 10 (十) who go inside? It's a girl 10 (十) Indeed the Creation to the birth of a new life, a true 10 (十) had no children.

When Silla nuljiwang bakjesang (363-410?) A teacher wrote "Budoji (符 都 志)> According to human right samsinin Margot (麻姑) and two daughters gunghui (穹 姬) and Ahn (巢 姬) was started from should.

Been bounced from the grandmother and two daughters, Margo Sin created the heavens and has gained just '10' capacity for creative people with the right girl because it is the beginning of mankind from the woman began to speak. That grandmother Sin '10' with a woman because I think God created the heavens and the earth that is not too much imagination.

The hole in the human body, the nine men and 10 women compared with `em, it's just human nature that sipgumeongyiraneun start from the beginning of the women is to prove the fact.

In addition, in order to create a new life is conceived in her womb should stay 10 months. Why are 10 master? Sipyiraneun everywhere until we get it to open a form to be filled is the number. Thus creating a true cross to pay the new life of a woman is hiding the truth of the universe sipgumeongeuro is.

Chairman of the shaman Association yijongseong

Mon, June 14 2010 08:27:05 Free TV shs051@korea.com


Pride of our own religious beliefs are positioned to reap the shamanism


This is changing the perception of shamans. 're Unique and bizarre behavior and speech is not different from the general public without their own philosophy and unique as the gods are giving people hope that people will be recognized. Shamans of the system, especially to improve education and interests off one's own activities are gamyeo yijongseong chairman of the Association met with South Korea last shamanic Promotion of Construction and the shaman looking for what people want to investigate.


Tell the historically been kept shamanism is a religion of our country unique. But our country is not God, Jesus or Buddha, but rather to revel in our country is religious leader of the old state. Let's find our own faith, because the movement is happening quietly last. In particular, we have good reason it's indigenous religion, past and present and to determine and predict the future is because you can not do that is Jesus Christ or Buddha.

Mirwoji a license, as soon as possible just picked teo
Gojoseon shamanism worship God is the founder Tangun. That is because our ancestors serve less noise than other religions, our people will say just the right religion. Most of the Korean shaman gods or ancestors have saved himself a revelation can know. People can do this too, only shamans can. Yeoksulin but also to predict future is to unlock writing SOME followed so that the symbolic meaning is unknown, or consist of multiple interpretations is often controversial. However, a Korean shaman to teach yourself, because God is its accuracy has to be accurate than any other religion or yeoksulin.
Currently the country as a Christian, and divided into numerous sects are found shamanism. Shamanism is one of the world cult, however, is that one would come out of the termination of the President contended. Mukyigiga one is not easy, but it is a country not yet officially registered as a national organization born of the permit because the bargain is not easy to collect the scattered denomination is. Manner, just need your approval to fly by the progress of the current country of about one million people are scattered in one of the shamans of the world to tie the interests and activities are available right over. In addition, through all the work organization can move a person Under the command system, because the bigger you can get the trust of believers.
Yesterday the president license fees for the countless hours and have been trying to shake gamyeo. Cheong Wa Dae and ministries including yeoyadang relationship with each entry and numerous related companies and each change of regime, the appointment received permission naejunda naetjiman has not yet answered. In political circles in their own turf war is constantly busy and important things coming in. As the approval of the Korea Association of shamanism is being postponed. However, the chairman of the standing and shamans 1 million a permit would be made as soon as possible to guarantee.

Shamans should possess the attitude
Shamans are the functional groups present in the registration and activities are. Activities also proud of a job as a shaman, and shamans of the past activities, rather than perceiving these facts and a lot of breakthrough can be seen. "Now the shaman at a bank about five million won as an unsecured loan can be. What is this? Shamans in the bank as a single job can be trusted to believe the evidence was not? "The president said.


Shamanism

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This article is about the practice of shamanism. For other uses, see Shaman (disambiguation).
Shamanism refers to a range of traditional beliefs and practices concerned with communication with the spirit world. Practitioners of shamanism are known as shamans. There are many variations of shamanism throughout the world, though there are some beliefs that are shared by all forms of shamanism:

That spirits can play important roles in human lives.
The shaman can control and/or cooperate with the spirits for the community's benefit.
The spirits can be either good or bad.
Shamans engage various processes and techniques to incite trance; such as: singing, dancing, taking entheogens, meditating and drumming.
Animals play an important role, acting as omens and message-bearers, as well as representations of animal spirit guides.
The shaman's spirit leaves the body and enters into the supernatural world during certain tasks.
The shamans can treat illnesses or sickness; they are healers.
Shamans have the ability to diagnose and cure human suffering and, in some societies, the ability to cause suffering. This is believed to be accomplished by traversing the axis mundi and forming a special relationship with, or gaining control over, spirits. Shamans have been credited with the ability to control the weather, divination, the interpretation of dreams, astral projection, and traveling to upper and lower worlds. Shamanistic traditions have existed throughout the world since prehistoric times.

Some anthropologists and religious scholars define a shaman as an intermediary between the natural and spiritual world, who travels between worlds in a state of trance. Once in the spirit world, the shaman would commune with the spirits for assistance in healing, hunting or weather management. Ripinsky-Naxon describes shamans as, “People who have a strong interest in their surrounding environment and the society of which they are a part.”

Other anthropologists critique the term "shamanism", arguing that it is a culturally specific word and institution and that by expanding it to fit any healer from any traditional society it produces a false unity between these cultures and creates a false idea of an initial human religion predating all others. However, some others say that these anthropologists simply fail to recognize the commonalities between otherwise diverse traditional societies.

Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits that affect the lives of the living. In contrast to animism and animatism, which any and usually all members of a society practice, shamanism requires specialized knowledge or abilities. It could be said that shamans are the experts employed by animists and animist communities. Shamans are often organized into full-time ritual or spiritual associations, like priests. In Indian culture as well there are those who are called tantrics and are said to have the power to control spirits and force them to do their bidding. People often visit them for many reasons but most often it is to ensure the spirit's aid in their work or to curse someone who they feel is an enemy of theirs or opposes them.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Function
2.1 Mediator
2.2 Distinct types of shamans
2.3 Ecological aspect
3 Soul concept, spirits
3.1 Soul concept
3.2 Spirits
4 Knowledge
5 Career
5.1 Initiation and learning
5.2 Shamanic illness
6 Practice
6.1 Underlying beliefs of practice
6.2 Methods
6.3 Music, songs
6.4 Paraphernalia
6.4.1 Drum
6.4.2 Eagle Feather
6.4.3 Rattle
6.4.4 Gong
6.4.5 Didgeridoo & Clap Stick
7 Gender and sexuality
8 Position
9 History
9.1 Hypotheses on origins
9.2 Historical times
9.3 Decline and revitalization / tradition-preserving movements
10 Areal variations
10.1 Europe
10.2 Asia
10.2.1 Siberia
10.2.2 Korea
10.2.3 Other Asian areas
10.3 Eskimo cultures
10.3.1 Shamanistic features
10.3.2 Diversity, with some similarities
10.4 Africa
10.5 Americas
10.5.1 Maya shamanism
10.5.2 Inuit and Eskimo
10.5.3 Amazonia
10.5.4 Mapuche
10.5.5 Fuegians
10.6 Oceania
11 Criticism of the term “shaman” or “shamanism”
12 Shamanism and New Age movement
13 See also
14 Notes
15 References
15.1 Latin
15.2 Cyrillic
16 Further reading
17 External links



Etymology
Shaman pronounced /ˈʃɑːmən/, /ˈʃeɪmən/, (|ˈshämən; ˈshā-|) noun (pl. -man(s)) originally referred to the traditional healers of Turkic-Mongol areas such as Northern Asia (Siberia) and Mongolia, a "shaman" being the Turkic-Tungus word for such a practitioner and literally meaning "he or she who knows." The words in Turkic languages which refer to shamans are kam, and sometimes baksı.

Some say the Tungusic word šamán is from Chinese sha men (Chinese: 沙门，沙弥), "Buddhist monk," borrowed from Pali śamana, ultimately from Sanskrit śramana "ascetic," from śramati "he fatigues" (see shramana). "The word shaman is in fact loosely used for almost any savage witch doctor who becomes frenzied and has communication with spirits. In its original form it appears to be a corruption of the Sanskrit Shramana, which, indicating a disciple of Buddha, among the Mongolians became synonymous with magician."[1]. Other scholars assert that the word comes directly from the Manchu language, and indeed is "the only commonly used English word that is a loan from this language".[2]

Another explanation analyzes this Tungusic word as containing root “sa-”, this means “to know”. “Shaman” is “one who knows”:[3][4] a person who is an expert in keeping together the multiple codes through which this complex belief system appears, and has a comprehensive view of them in their mind with certainty of knowledge.[3]

A criticism against the above approach says that there is no evidence that this Tungusic word would be of inner origin, and it is hard to reconstruct from the sources where this word was borrowed from in the past.[5][6]

The word passed through Russian and German before it was adopted into English.

In any case, the proper plural form of the word is "shaman" and not "shamans" or "shamen", as it is unrelated to the English word "man". Like English, Tungus does not apply gender to words. Therefore, shaman is correct for both a male and female shaman. The word shamanka would be correct for one speaking Russian as it is the Russian variation for the feminine gender, a Russian language requirement.

In its common usage, it has replaced the older English language term witch doctor, a term which unites the two stereotypical functions of the shaman: knowledge of magical and other lore, and the ability to cure a person and mend a situation. However, this term is generally considered to be pejorative and anthropologically inaccurate. Objections to the use of shaman as a generic term have been raised as well, by both academics and traditional healers themselves, given that the word comes from a specific place, people, and set of practices.

The shaman is referred to in Greek mythology as a necromancer and could raise spirits and corpses to use as slaves, soldiers and tools for divination.


Function
Shamans (in all cultures that are recorded as having shamans), can perform a plethora of functions:[7] healing;[8][9] leading a sacrifice;[10] preserving the tradition by storytelling and songs;[11] fortune-telling;[12] acting as a psychopomp (literal meaning, “guide of souls”).[13] In some cultures, a shaman may fulfill several functions in one person.[14]

As a psychopomp, the shaman may accompany the incarnating soul of a newborn baby, or inversely, the departing soul of the newly-dead.[13] They may also serve the community by maintaining the tradition through memorizing long songs and tales.[11]


Mediator
Shamans act as "mediators" in their culture.[15][16] The shaman is seen as communicating with the spirits on behalf of the community, including the spirits of the dead. In some cultures, this mediator function of the shaman may be illustrated well by some of the shaman's objects and symbols. E.g. among the Selkups, a report mentions sea duck as a spirit-animal: ducks are capable of both flying, and diving underwater, thus they are regarded as belonging to both the upper world and the world underneath.[17] Similarly, the shaman and the jaguar are identified in some Amazonian cultures: the jaguar is capable of moving freely on the ground, in the water, and climbing trees (like the shaman's soul). In some Siberian cultures, it is some water fowl species that are associated to the shaman in a similar way, and the shaman is believed to take on its form.[18]

“The Shaman's Tree” is an image found in several cultures (Yakuts, Dolgans, Evenks), Celts, as a symbol for mediation. The tree is seen as a being whose roots belong to the world underneath; its trunk belongs to the middle, human-inhabited word; and its top is related to the upper world.[19]


Distinct types of shamans
In some cultures there may be additional types of shamans, who perform more specialized functions. For example, among the Nanai people, a distinct kind of shaman acts as a psychopomp.[20] Other specialized shamans may be distinguished according to the type of spirits, or realms of the spirit world, with which the shaman most commonly interacts. These roles vary among the Nenets, Enets, and Selkup shamans (paper;[21] online[22]). Among Huichol, there are two categories of shamans. This demonstrates the differences of shamans even within a single tribe.


Ecological aspect
In tropical rainforests, resources for human consumption are easily depletable. In some rainforest cultures, such as the Tucano, a sophisticated system exists for the management of resources, and for avoiding the depletion of these resources through overhunting. This system is conceptualized in a mythological context, involving symbolism and, in some cases, the belief that the breaking of hunting restrictions may cause illness. As the primary teacher of tribal symbolism, the shaman may have a leading role in this ecological management, actively restricting hunting and fishing. The shaman is able to “release” game animals (or their souls) from their hidden abodes,[23] The Desana shaman has to negotiate with a mythological being for souls of game.[24] Not only Tucanos, but also some other rainforest Indians have such ecological concerns related to their shamanism, for example Piaroa.[25] Besides Tukanos and Piaroa, also many Eskimo groups think that the shaman is able to fetch souls of game from remote places ;[26][27] or undertake a soul travel in order to promote hunting luck, e.g. by asking for game from mythological beings (Sea Woman).[28]


Soul concept, spirits
The plethora of functions described in the above section may seem to be rather distinct tasks, but some important underlying concepts join them.


Soul concept
In some cases, at some cultures, the soul concept can explain more, seemingly unassociated phenomena:[29][30][31]

Healing
may be based closely on the soul concepts of the belief system of the people served by the shaman (online[8]). It may consist of the retrieving the lost soul of the ill person.[32] See also the soul dualism concept.
Scarcity of hunted game
can be solved by “releasing” the souls of the animals from their hidden abodes. Besides that, many taboos may prescribe the behavior of people towards game, so that the souls of the animals do not feel angry or hurt, or the pleased soul of the already killed prey can tell the other, still living animals, that they can let themselves to be caught and killed.[33][34] The ecological aspect of shamanistic practice (and the related beliefs) has already been mentioned above in the article.
Infertility of women
can be cured by obtaining the soul of the expected child to be born.

Spirits
Also the beliefs related to spirits can explain many different phenomena too,[35] for example, the importance of storytelling, or acting as a singer, can be understood better if we examine the whole belief system: a person who is able to memorize long texts or songs (and play an instrument) may be regarded as having achieved this ability through contact with the spirits (for example among Khanty people).[36]


Knowledge
As mentioned, a (debated) approach explains the etymology of word “shaman” as meaning “one who knows”.[37][38] Really, the shaman is a person who is an expert in keeping together the multiple codes through which this complex belief system appears, and has a comprehensive view on it in their mind with certainty of knowledge.[39] The shaman uses (and the audience understands) multiple codes. Shamans express meanings in many ways: verbally, musically, artistically, and in dance. Meanings may be manifested in objects, such as amulets.[40]

The shaman knows the culture of their community well,[41][42] and acts accordingly. Thus, their audience knows the used symbols and meanings — that's why shamanism can be efficient: people in the audience trust it.[42] Such belief system can appear to its members with certainty of knowledge — this explains the above described etymology for the word “shaman”.[43]

There are semiotic theoretical approaches to shamanism,[44][45][46] and also ones that regard it as a cognitive map,[47][48] see also Juha Pentikäinen's “grammar of mind” approach:[49]

“ Juha Pentikäinen, in his introduction to Shamanism and Northern Ecology, explains how the Sámi drum embodies Sámi worldviews. He considers shamanism to be a ‘grammar of mind’ (10), because shamans need to be experts in the folklore of their cultures (11) ”

.

Some approaches refer to hermeneutics[50] (“ethnohermeneutics”[48]).

Other fieldworks use systems theory concepts and ecological considerations to understand the shaman's lore. Desana and Tucano Indians have developed a sophisticated symbolism and concepts of “energy” flowing between people and animals in cyclic paths. Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff relates these concepts to the changes how modern science (systems theory, ecology, some new approaches in anthropology and archeology) treats causality in a less linear way.[23] He suggests also a cooperation of modern science and indigenous lore (online[51]).

According to Vladimir Basilov and his work Chosen By the Spirits, a shaman is to be in the utmost healthy conditions to perform their duties to the fullest. The belief of the shaman is most popular through the people located in Central Asia and Kazakhstan. The traditions of the shamanism is also imbedded in the Tadzhiks and Uzbeks regions. The shaman’s bodies are to be formed in a strong manner, someone having a small build would be turned away at once. Age is a requirement as well, definitely being over the age of fifty would disqualify those that want to be involved in serving the spirits. The shamans are always of the higher intellect and are looked at in a different perspective, they have a way that makes them quick on their feet and at ill will curing those in need.

One of the most significant and relevant qualities that separate a shaman from other spiritual leaders is their communications with the supernatural world. As early as the beginning of the century self-hypnosis was very highly thought of by those who worship. Another characteristic of the shaman is the talent to locate objects and discover thieves, shocking those of their tribe and those others also around to witness. The belief in the spirits or the supernatural is what attracts those to believe in the shamans. Those who have ill children or are in failing health of their own is what draws them to the shaman spiritual healings. Although the shamans are still in existence, the population is surely declining.[52]


Career

Initiation and learning
In the world's shamanic cultures, the shaman plays a priest-like role; however, there is an essential difference between the two, as Joseph Campbell describes:

"The priest is the socially initiated, ceremonially inducted member of a recognized religious organization, where he holds a certain rank and functions as the tenant of an office that was held by others before him, while the shaman is one who, as a consequence of a personal psychological crisis, has gained a certain power of his own." (1969, p. 231)
A shaman may be initiated via a serious illness, by being struck by lightning and dreaming of thunder to become a Heyoka, or by a near-death experience (e.g., the shaman Black Elk), or one might follow a "calling" to become a shaman. There is usually a set of cultural imagery expected to be experienced during shamanic initiation regardless of the method of induction. According to Mircea Eliade, such imagery often includes being transported to the spirit world and interacting with beings inhabiting the distant world of spirits, meeting a spiritual guide, being devoured by some being and emerging transformed, and/or being "dismantled" and "reassembled" again, often with implanted amulets such as magical crystals. The imagery of initiation generally speaks of transformation and the granting powers to transcend death and rebirth.

In some societies shamanic powers are considered to be inherited, whereas in other places of the world shamans are considered to have been "called" and require lengthy training. Among the Siberian Chukchis one may behave in ways that "Western" bio-medical clinicians would perhaps characterize as psychotic, but which Siberian peoples may interpret as possession by a spirit who demands that one assume the shamanic vocation. Among the South American Tapirape shamans are called in their dreams. In other societies shamans choose their career. In North America, First Nations peoples would seek communion with spirits through a "vision quest"; whereas South American Shuar, seeking the power to defend their family against enemies, apprentice themselves to accomplished shamans. Similarly the Urarina of Peruvian Amazonia have an elaborate cosmological system predicated on the ritual consumption of ayahuasca. Coupled with millenarian impulses, Urarina ayahuasca shamanism is a key feature of this poorly documented society.

Putatively customary shamanic "traditions" can also be noted among indigenous Kuna peoples of Panama, who rely on shamanic powers and sacred talismans to heal. As such, they enjoy a popular position among local peoples.

Note: Some feel that the Lakota tradition (which includes the Heyoka and Black Elk, mentioned above) are not really shamanic. There is a big difference between the Lakota culture and shamanic cultures. In many South American shamanic cultures there is the use of psycho-active substances (peyote, fly agaric, psilocybin, etc.) In the Lakota culture pain is often used instead of psychoactive plants. While a Siberian shaman would use fly agaric, a Lakota medicine man would do a sun dance. The Lakota medicine people have some bias against the use of psychoactive plants. The majority of shamanic cultures use repetitive sound to enter the shamanic state versus the use of psycho-active plants or pain.


Shamanic illness
Shamanic illness, also called shamanistic inititatory crisis, is a psycho-spiritual crisis, usually involuntary, or a rite of passage, observed among those becoming shamans. The episode often marks the beginning of a time-limited episode of confusion or disturbing behavior where the shamanic initiate might sing or dance in an unconventional fashion, or have an experience of being "disturbed by spirits". The symptoms are usually not considered to be signs of mental illness by interpreters in the shamanic culture; rather, they are interpreted as introductory signposts for the individual who is meant to take the office of shaman (Lukoff et.al, 1992). Similarities of some shamanic illness symptoms to the kundalini process have been often noted [1]. The significant role of initiatory illnesses in the calling of a shaman can be found in the detailed case history of Chuonnasuan, the last master shaman among the Tungus peoples in Northeast China.[53]


Practice

Underlying beliefs of practice
The shaman plays the role of healer in shamanic societies; shamans gain knowledge and power by traversing the axis mundi and bringing back knowledge from the heavens. Even in western society, this ancient practice of healing is referenced by the use of the caduceus as the symbol of medicine. Often the shaman has, or acquires, one or more familiar helping entities in the spirit world; these are often spirits in animal form, spirits of healing plants, or (sometimes) those of departed shamans. In many shamanic societies, magic, magical force, and knowledge are all denoted by one word, such as the Quechua term "yachay".

While the causes of disease are considered to lie in the spiritual realm, being effected by malicious spirits or witchcraft, both spiritual and physical methods are used to heal. Commonly, a shaman will "enter the body" of the patient to confront the spirit making the patient sick, and heal the patient by banishing the infectious spirit. Many shamans have expert knowledge of the plant life in their area, and an herbal regimen is often prescribed as treatment. In many places shamans claim to learn directly from the plants, and to be capable of harnessing their effects and healing properties only after obtaining permission from its abiding or patron spirit. In South America, individual spirits are summoned by the singing of songs called icaros; before a spirit can be summoned the spirit must teach the shaman its song. The use of totem items such as rocks is common; these items are believed to have special powers and an animating spirit. Such practices are presumably very ancient; in about 368 BCE, Plato wrote in the Phaedrus that the "first prophecies were the words of an oak", and that everyone who lived at that time found it rewarding enough to "listen to an oak or a stone, so long as it was telling the truth".

The belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known as brujeria in South America, is prevalent in many shamanic societies. Some societies distinguish shamans who cure from sorcerers who harm; others believe that all shamans have the power to both cure and kill; that is, shamans are in some societies also thought of as being capable of harm. The shaman usually enjoys great power and prestige in the community, and is renowned for their powers and knowledge; but they may also be suspected of harming others and thus feared.

By engaging in this work, the shaman exposes himself to significant personal risk, from the spirit world, from any enemy shamans, as well as from the means employed to alter his state of consciousness. Certain of the plant materials used can be fatal, and the failure to return from an out-of-body journey can lead to physical death. Spells are commonly used to protect against these dangers, and the use of more dangerous plants is usually very highly ritualized.


Methods
Generally, the shaman traverses the axis mundi and enters the spirit world by effecting a transition of consciousness, entering into an ecstatic trance, either autohypnotically or through the use of entheogens. The methods employed are diverse, and are often used together. Some of the methods for effecting such trances:

Tobacco (improves concentration, but is not psychotrophic)
Drumming
Dancing
Singing
Listening to music
Icaros / Medicine Songs
Vigils
Fasting
Sweat lodge
Vision quests
Mariri
Swordfighting / Bladesmithing
"Power" or "master" plants used as incense or consumed to heal or attain altered states (please do very thorough research before using them, and always consider using it with guidance from an experienced person):
Psychedelic mushrooms - alluded to euphemistically as holy children by Mazatec shamans such as María Sabina.
Cannabis
San Pedro cactus - named after (St. Peter), guardian and holding the keys to the gates of heaven, by the Andean peoples; Quechua name: Huachuma
Peyote
Ayahuasca - Quechua for Vine of the Dead; also called yage
Cedar
Datura
Deadly nightshade
Fly agaric
Iboga
Morning glory
Sweetgrass
Sage
Salvia divinorum - sometimes called Diviners' sage
Shamans will often observe dietary or customary restrictions particular to their tradition. Sometimes these restrictions are more than just cultural. For example, the diet followed by shamans and apprentices prior to participating in an Ayahuasca ceremony includes foods rich in tryptophan (a biosynthetic precursor to serotonin) as well as avoiding foods rich in tyramine, which could induce hypertensive crisis if ingested with MAOIs such as are found in Ayahuasca brews.


Music, songs
See also: Imitation of natural sounds related to various shamanistic beliefs or practice
Just like shamanism itself,[54] music and songs related to it in various cultures are diverse, far from being alike. In some cultures and several instances, some songs related to shamanism intend to imitate also natural sounds, sometimes via onomatopoiea.[55]

Of course, in several cultures, imitation of natural sounds may serve other functions, not necessarily related to shamanism: practical goals as luring game in the hunt;[56] or entertainment (katajjaqs of Inuit).[56][57]


Paraphernalia
As mentioned above, cultures termed as shaministic can be very different. Thus, shamans may have various kinds of paraphernalia.


Drum
Drum is used by shamans of several peoples in Siberia; same holds for many Eskimo groups,[58] although its usage for shamanistic seances may be lacking among the Inuit of Canada.[59]

The beating of the drum allows the shaman to achieve an altered state of consciousness or to travel on a journey. The drum is for example referred to as, “‘horse’ or ‘rainbow-bridge’ between the physical and spiritual worlds”.[60] The journey mentioned is one in which the shaman establishes a connection with one or two of the spirit worlds. With the beating of the drum come neurophysiological effects. Much fascination surround the role that the acoustics of the drum play to the shaman.

There are two different worlds, the upper and the lower. In the upper world, images such as “climbing a mountain, tree, cliff, rainbow, or ladder; ascending into the sky on smoke; flying on an animal, carpet, or broom and meeting a teacher or guide”,[61]are typically seen. The lower world consists of images including, “entering into the earth through a cave, hollow tree stump, a water hole, a tunnel, or a tube”.[62] By being able to interact with a different world at an altered and aware state, the Shaman can then exchange information between the world in which he lives and that in which he has traveled to.


Eagle Feather
These feathers have been seen used as a kind of spiritual scalpel.[2] One example of such use would be Rolling Thunder, an inter-tribal medicine-man/shaman.


Rattle
Found mostly among South American[63] and African peoples. Also used in ceremonies among the Navajo and in traditional ways in their blessings and ceremonies.


Gong
Often found through South East Asia, Far Eastern peoples.


Didgeridoo & Clap Stick
Found mainly among the various aboriginal peoples of Australia.


Gender and sexuality
While some cultures have had higher numbers of male shamans, others such as native Korean cultures have had a preference for females. Recent archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest known shamans—dating to the Upper Paleolithic era in what is now the Czech Republic—were women.[64]

In some societies, shamans exhibit a two-spirit identity, assuming the dress, attributes, role or function of the opposite sex, gender fluidity and/or same-sex sexual orientation. This practice is common, and found among the Chukchi, Sea Dyak, Patagonians, Araucanians, Arapaho, Cheyenne, Navajo, Pawnee, Lakota, and Ute, as well as many other Native American tribes. Indeed, these two spirited shamans were so widespread as to suggest a very ancient origin of the practice. See, for example, Joseph Campbell's map in his The Historical Atlas of World Mythology: [Vol I: The Way of the Animal Powers: Part 2: pg 174] Such two-spirit shamans are thought to be especially powerful, and Shamanism so important to ancestral populations that it may have contributed to the maintenance of genes for transgendered individuals in breeding populations over evolutionary time through the mechanism of "kin selection." [see final chapter of E.O. Wilson's "Sociobiology: The New Synthesis] They are highly respected and sought out in their tribes, as they will bring high status to their mates.

Duality and bisexuality are also found in the shamans of the Dogon people of Mali (Africa). References to this can be found in several works of Malidoma Somé, a writer who was born and initiated there.


Position
In some cultures, the border between the shaman and the lay person is not sharp:

“ Among the Barasana, there is no absolute difference between those men recognized as shamans and those who are not. At the lowest level, most adult men have some abilities as shamans and will carry out some of the same functions as those men who have a widespread reputation for their powers and knowledge. ”

The difference is that the shaman knows more myths and understands their meaning better, but the majority of adult men knows many myths, too.[65]

Similar can be observed among some Eskimo peoples. Many laic people have felt experiences that are usually attributed to the shamans of those Eskimo groups: experiencing daydreaming, reverie, trance is not restricted to shamans.[66] It is the control over helping spirits that is characteristic mainly to shamans, the laic people use amulets, spells, formulae, songs.[67][68] In Greenland among some Inuit, there are laic people who may have the capability to have closer relationships with beings of the belief system than others. These people are apprentice shamans who failed to accomplish their learning process.[69]

The assistant of an Oroqen shaman (called jardalanin, i.e. "second spirit") knows many things about the associated beliefs: he/she accompanies the rituals, interprets the behavior of the shaman.[70] Despite of this, the jardalanin is not a shaman. For his/her interpretative, accompanying role, it would be even unwelcome to fall into trance.[71]

The way shamans get sustenance and take part in everyday life varies among cultures. In many Eskimo groups, they provide services for the community and get a “due payment” (some cultures believe the payment is given to the helping spirits[72]), but these goods are only “welcome addenda.” They are not enough to enable shamanizing as a full-time activity. Shamans live like any other member of the group, as hunter or housewife.[72][73]


History

Hypotheses on origins
Shamanistic practices are sometimes claimed to predate all organized religions, dating back to the Paleolithic [74][75], and certainly to the Neolithic period [75].


Historical times
Aspects of shamanism are encountered in later, organized religions, generally in their mystic and symbolic practices. Greek paganism was influenced by shamanism, as reflected in the stories of Tantalus, Prometheus, Medea, and Calypso among others, as well as in the Eleusinian Mysteries, and other mysteries. Some of the shamanic practices of the Greek religion later merged into the Roman religion.

The shamanic practices of many cultures were marginalized with the spread of monotheism in Europe and the Middle East. In Europe, starting around 400, institutional Christianity was instrumental in the collapse of the Greek and Roman religions. Temples were systematically destroyed and key ceremonies were outlawed or appropriated. The Early Modern witch trials may have further eliminated lingering remnants of European shamanism (if in fact "shamanism" can even be used to accurately describe the beliefs and practices of those cultures).

The repression of shamanism continued as Catholic influence spread with Spanish colonization. In the Caribbean, and Central and South America, Catholic priests followed in the footsteps of the Conquistadors and were instrumental in the destruction of the local traditions, denouncing practitioners as "devil worshippers" and having them executed. In North America, the English Puritans conducted periodic campaigns against individuals perceived as witches. As recently as the nineteen seventies, historic petroglyphs were being defaced by missionaries in the Amazon. A similarly destructive story can be told of the encounter between Buddhists and shamans, e.g., in Mongolia (See Caroline Humphrey with Urgunge Onon, 1996).


Decline and revitalization / tradition-preserving movements
In many areas, former shamans ceased to fill the functions in the community they used to, as they felt mocked by their own community,[78] or regarded their own past as a deprecated thing, sometimes even unwilling to talk about it to an ethnographer.[79] Moreover, besides personal communications of former shamans, even some folklore texts narrate directly about a deterioration process: a Buryat epic text laments that shamans of older times were stronger, possessing capabilities like omnividence[80], fortune-telling even for decades in the future, moving as fast as bullet; the texts contrast them to the recent heartless, unknowing, greedy shamans.[81]

As for reality, in most affected areas, shamanistic practices ceased to exist, with authentic shamans died and their personal experiences following. The loss of memories is not always lessened by the fact the shaman is not always the only person in a community who knows the beliefs and motifs related to the local shamanhood (laics know myths as well, among Barasana, even though less;[65] there are former shaman apprentices unable to complete the learning among some Greenlandic Inuit peoples,[69] moreover, even laics can have trance-like experiences among Eskimos;[66] the assistant of a shaman can be extremely knowledgable among Oroqen[71][70]). Although the shaman is often believed and trusted exactly because he/she "accommodates" to the "grammar" of the beliefs of the community,[42] but several parts of the knowledge related to the local shamanhood consist of personal experiences of the shaman (illness), or root in his/her family life (the interpretation of the symbolics of his/her drum),[82] thus, these are lost with his/her death. Besides of this, in many cultures, the entire traditional belief system has become endangered (often together with a partial or total language shift), the other people of the community remembering the associated beliefs and practices (or the language at all) became old or died, many folklore memories (songs, texts) went forgotten — this may threaten even such peoples which could preserve their isolation until the middle of the 20th centrury, like the Nganasan.[83]

Some areas could enjoy a prolonged resistance due to their remoteness.

Variants of shamanism among Eskimo peoples were once a widespread (and very diverse) phenomenon, but today are rarely practiced, and they were already in the decline among many groups even in the times when the first major ethnological researches were done,[84] e.g. among Polar Eskimos, in the end of 19th century, Sagloq died, the last shaman who was believed to be able to travel to the sky and under the sea — and many other former shamanic capacities were lost in that time as well, like ventriloquism and sleight-of-hand.[85]
The isolated location of Nganasan people allowed shamanism to be a living phenomenon among them even in the beginning of 20th century,[86] the last notable Nganasan shaman's séances could be recorded on film in the 1970s.[87]
After exemplifying the general decline even in the most remote areas, let us mention that there are some revitalization or tradition-preserving efforts as a response. Besides collecting the memories,[88] there are also some tradition-preserving[89] and even revitalization efforts,[90] sometimes lead by authentic former shamans (for example among Cherokee[3], Sakha people[91] and Tuvans[77]).

Besides tradition-preserving efforts, there are also neoshamansistic movements, these may differ from many tradtitional shamanistic practice and beliefs in several points.[92] Admittedly, several traditional beliefs systems indeed have ecological considerations (for example, many Eskimo peoples), and among Tukano people, the shaman indeed has directly resource-protecting roles, see details in section Ecological aspect.

Today, shamanism survives primarily among indigenous peoples. Shamanic practices continue today in the tundras, jungles, deserts, and other rural areas, and even in cities, towns, suburbs, and shantytowns all over the world. This is especially true for Africa and South America, where "mestizo shamanism" is widespread.


Areal variations

Europe
While shamanism had a strong tradition in Europe before the rise of monotheism, shamanism remains as a traditional, organized religion in Uralic , Altaic people and Huns; and also in Mari-El and Udmurtia, two semi-autonomous provinces of Russia with large Finno-Ugric minority populations. It was widespread in Europe during the Stone Age[citation needed], and continued to be practiced throughout the Iron Age by the various Teutonic tribes and the Fino-Baltic peoples.[93]

See also Sami shamanism, Finnish mythology , Astuvansalmi rock paintings, Huns , Tengri and the appropriate parts of Shamanism in Siberia.

Some peoples, which used to live in Siberia, have wandered to their present locations since then. For example, many Uralic peoples live now outside Siberia. The original location of the Proto-Uralic peoples (and its extent) is debated. Combined phytogeographical and linguistic considerations (distribution of various tree species and the presence of their names in various Uralic languages) suggest that this area was north of Central Ural Mountains and on lower and middle parts of Ob River.[94] The ancestors of Hungarian people or Magyars have wandered from their ancestral proto-Uralic area to the Pannonian Basin. Shamanism is no more a living practice among Hungarians, but some remnants have been reserved as fragments of folklore, in folktales, customs.[95] See shamanistic remnants in Hungarian folklore.

Tuva is the only region in the world to have shamanism as an official religion.


Asia

Siberia
Main article: Shamanism in Siberia
Siberia is regarded as the locus classicus of shamanism.[96] It is inhabited by many different ethnic groups. Many of its Uralic, Altaic, and Paleosiberian peoples observe shamanistic practices even in modern times. Many classical ethnographic sources of “shamanism” were recorded among Siberian peoples.

Among several Samoyedic peoples shamanism was a living tradition also in modern times, especially at groups living in isolation until recent times (Nganasans).[97] The last notable Nganasan shaman's seances could be recorded on film in the 1970s.[97][98]

When the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949 and the border with Russian Siberia was formally sealed, many nomadic Tungus groups that practiced shamanism were confined in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. These include the Ewenki and the Oroqen. The last shaman of the Oroqen, Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), died in October 2000.

In many other cases, shamanism was in decline even at the beginning of 20th century (Selkups).[99]


Korea
Main article: Korean shamanism
Shamanism is still practiced in South Korea, where the role of a shaman is most frequently taken by women known as mudangs, while male shamans (rare)are called baksoo mudangs. Korean shamans are considered to be from a low class.

A person can become a shaman through hereditary title or through natural ability. Shamans are consulted in contemporary society for financial and marital decisions.

The Korean shamans' use of the Amanita Muscaria .[citation needed]. in traditional practice is thought to have been suppressed as early as the Choseon dynasty. Another mushroom of the Russula genus was renamed as the Shaman's mushroom, "Mu-dang-beo-seot무당버섯". Korean shamans are also reputed to use spiders over the subject's skin. Colorful robes, dancing, drums and ritual weapons are also features.


Other Asian areas
There is a strong shamanistic influence in the Bön religion of some Central Asians, and in Tibetan Buddhism. Buddhism became popular with shamanic peoples such as the Tibetans, Mongols, and Manchu beginning in the eighth century. Forms of shamanistic ritual combined with Tibetan Buddhism became institutionalized as the state religion under the Mongolian Yuan dynasty and the Manchurian Qing dynasty. However, in the shamanic cultures still practiced by various ethnic groups in areas such as Nepal and northern India, shamans are not necessarily considered enlightened, and often are even feared for their ability to use their power to carry out malicious intent.

In Tibet, the Nyingma schools in particular, had a Tantric tradition that had married "priests" known as Ngakpas or Ngakmas/mos (fem.). The Ngakpas were often employed or commissioned to rid the villages of demons or disease, creations of protective amulets, the carrying out of religious rites etc. The Ngakpas should however, been grounded in Buddhist philosophy and not simply another form of shaman, but sadly, this was most often not the case. There have always been, however, highly realised and accomplished ngakpas. They were in their own right great lamas who were of equal status as lamas with monastic backgrounds. The monasteries, as in many conventional religious institutions, wished to preserve their own traditions, sometimes at the expense of others. The monasteries depended upon the excesses of patrons for support. This situation often led to a clash between the more grassroots and shamanic character of the travelling Chödpa and Ngakpa culture and the more conservative religious monastic system.[100]

Shamanism is still widely practiced in the Ryukyu Islands (Okinawa), where shamans are known as 'Nuru' (all women) and 'Yuta'. 'Nuru' generally administrates public or communal ceremonies while 'Yuta' focuses on the civil or private matters. Shamanism is also practiced in a few rural areas in Japan proper. It is commonly believed that the Shinto religion is the result of the transformation of a shamanistic tradition into a religion.

Shamanistic practices also seem to have been preserved in the Catholic religious traditions of aborigenes in Taiwan[101]

In Vietnam, shamans conduct rituals in many of the religious traditions that co-mingle in the majority and minority populations. In their rituals, music, dance, special garments and offerings are part of the performance that surround the spirit journey.[102]


Eskimo cultures
Main article: Shamanism among Eskimo peoples
Eskimo groups comprise a huge area stretching from Eastern Siberia through Alaska and Northern Canada (including Labrador Peninsula) to Greenland. Shamanistic practice and beliefs have been recorded at several parts of this vast area crosscutting continental borders.[104][66][34]

As for terminology used in the article: the term Eskimo has fallen out of favour in Canada and Greenland, where it is considered pejorative and the term Inuit has become more common. However, Eskimo is still considered acceptable among Alaska Natives of Yupik and Inupiaq (Inuit) heritage, and is preferred over Inuit as a collective reference. To date, no replacement term for Eskimo inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik people has achieved acceptance across the geographical area inhabited by the Inuit and Yupik peoples. The Inuit and Yupik languages together constitute one branch within the Eskimo-Aleut language family alongside the Aleut branch. (The Sireniki Eskimo language is sometimes proposed to form a third branch of the Eskimo,[105][106][107] but sometimes it is regarded as belonging to the Yupik languages.[108]) The languages of the Eskimo branch have certain common characteristics (compared to Aleut) which justifies "splitting off" the Eskimo branch inside the Eskimo-Aleut family.


Shamanistic features
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When speaking of “shamanism” in various Eskimo groups, we must remember that (as mentioned above) the term “shamanism” can cover certain characteristics of various different cultures.[109] Mediation is regarded often as an important aspect of shamanism in general.[110] Also in most Eskimo groups, the role of mediator is known well:[111] the person filling it in is actually believed to be able to contact the beings who populate the belief system. Term “shaman” is used in several English-language publications also in relation to Eskimos.[104][112][113][114] Also the /aˈliɣnalʁi/ of the Asian Eskimos is translated as “shaman” in the Russian[115] and English[111] literature.

The belief system assumes specific links between the living people, the souls of hunted animals, and those of dead people.[116] The soul concepts of several groups are specific examples of soul dualism (showing variability in details in the various cultures).

Like most cultures labelled as “shamanistic”, the Eskimo groups have several special features, or at least ones that are not present in all shamanistic cultures. Unlike in many Siberian cultures, the careers of most Eskimo shamans lack the motivation of force: becoming a shaman is usually a result of deliberate consideration, not a necessity forced by the spirits.[117]


Diversity, with some similarities
Another possible concern: do the belief systems of various Eskimo groups have such common features at all, that would justify any mentioning them together? There was no political structure above the groups, their languages were relative, but differed more or less, often forming language continuums (online[107]).

There are some similarities in the cultures of the Eskimo groups[118][119][120][121][122] together with diversity, far from homogeneity.[123]

The Russian linguist Меновщиков, an expert of Siberian Yupik and Sireniki Eskimo languages (while admitting that he is not a specialist in ethnology[124]) mentions, that the shamanistic seances of those Siberian Yupik and Sireniki groups he has seen have many similarities to those of Greenland Inuit groups described by Fridtjof Nansen,[125] although a large distance separates Siberia and Greenland. There may be certain similarities also in Asiatic groups with some North American ones.[126] Also the usage of a specific shaman's language is documented among several Eskimo groups, used mostly for talking to spirits.[127][128] Also the Ungazigmit (belonging to Siberian Yupiks) had a special allegoric usage of some expressions.[129]

The local cultures showed great diversity. The myths concerning the role of shaman had several variants, and also the name of their protagonists varied from culture to culture. For example, a mythological figure, usually referred to in the literature by the collective term Sea Woman, has factually many local names: Nerrivik “meat dish” among Polar Inuit, Nuliayuk “lubricous” among Netsilingmiut, Sedna “the nether one” among Baffin Land Inuit.[130] Also the soul conceptions, e.g. the details of the soul dualism showed great variability, ranging from guardianship to a kind of reincarnation. Conceptions of spirits or other beings had also many variants (see e.g. the tupilaq concept).[131]


Africa
See also African traditional religion.

In the early 19th century traditional healers in parts of Africa were often referred to in a derogatory manner as "witch doctors" practising Juju by early European settlers and explorers.The San or Bushmen ancestors who were primarily scattered in Southern Africa before the 19th century, are reported to have practiced a practice similar to shamanism. In areas in Eastern Free State and Lesotho, where they co-existed with the early Sotho tribes, local folklore describes them to have lived in caves where they drew pictures on cave walls during a trance and were also reputed to be good rain makers.


Americas
Native American and First Nations cultures have diverse religious beliefs. There was never one universal Native American religion or spiritual system. Though many Native American cultures have traditional healers, ritualists, singers, mystics, lore-keepers and "Medicine People", none of them ever used, or use, the term "shaman" to describe these religious leaders. Rather, like other indigenous cultures the world over, their spiritual functionaries are described by words in their own languages, and in many cases are not taught to outsiders.

Many of these indigenous religions have been grossly misrepresented by outside observers and anthropologists, even to the extent of superficial or seriously mistaken anthropological accounts being taken as more authentic than the accounts of actual members of the cultures and religions in question. Often these accounts suffer from "Noble Savage"-type romanticism and racism. Some contribute to the fallacy that Native American cultures and religions are something that only existed in the past, and which can be mined for data despite the opinions of Native communities.

Not all Indigenous communities have roles for specific individuals who mediate with the spirit world on behalf of the community. Among those that do have this sort of religious structure, spiritual methods and beliefs may have some commonalities, though many of these commonalities are due to some nations being closely-related, from the same region, or through post-Colonial governmental policies leading to the combining of formerly-independent nations on reservations. This can sometimes lead to the impression that there is more unity among belief systems than there was in antiquity.

Navajo medicine men, known as "Hatałii", use several methods to diagnose the patient's ailments. These may include using special tools such as crystal rocks, and abilities such as hand-trembling and trances, sometimes accompanied by chanting. The Hatałii will select a specific healing chant for that type of ailment. Navajo healers must be able to correctly perform a healing ceremony from beginning to end. If they don't, the ceremony will not work. Training a Hatałii to perform ceremonies is extensive, arduous, and takes many years, and is not unlike priesthood. The apprentice learns everything by watching his teacher, and memorizes the words to all the chants. Many times, a medicine man cannot learn all sixty of the traditional ceremonies, so he will opt to specialize in a select few.

Santo Daime is a syncretic religion with elements of shamanism.


Maya shamanism
Main article: Maya shamanism
Further information: Mayan astrology
Further information: Maya religion
The Maya people of Guatemala, Belize, and Southern Mexico practice a highly sophisticated form of shamanism based upon astrology and a form of divination known as "the blood speaking", in which the shaman is guided in divination and healing by pulses in the veins of his arms and legs.


Inuit and Eskimo
Main article: Shamanism among Eskimo peoples

Amazonia
In the Peruvian Amazon Basin and north coastal regions of the country, the healer shamans are known as curanderos. In addition to Peruvian shaman’s (curanderos) use of rattles, and their ritualized ingestion of mescaline-bearing San Pedro cactuses (Trichocereus pachanoi) for the divinization and diagnosis of sorcery, north-coastal shamans are famous throughout the region for their intricately complex and symbolically dense healing altars called mesas (tables). Sharon (1993) has argued that the mesas symbolize the dualistic ideology underpinning the practice and experience of north-coastal shamanism.[132] For Sharon, the mesas are the, "physical embodiment of the supernatural opposition between benevolent and malevolent energies” (Dean 1998:61).[133]

In the Amazon Rainforest, at several Indian groups the shaman acts also as a manager of scare ecological resources (paper;[23][25] online[51]). The rich symbolism behind Tukano shamanism has been documented in some in-depth field works[23][134][135] even in the last decades of the 20th century.

The yaskomo of the Waiwai is believed to be able to perform a soul flight. The soul flight can serve several functions:

healing
flying to the sky to consult cosmological beings (the moon or the brother of the moon) to get a name for a new-born baby
flying to the cave of peccaries' mountains to ask the father of peccaries for abundance of game
flying deep down in a river, to achieve the help of other beings.
Thus, a yaskomo is believed to be able to reach sky, erth, water, in short, every element.[136]

Among literature on South American tropical forest shamanism are :-

"Shamans, Prophets, Priests, and Pastors."
In Darkness and Secrecy. (northern)
In Darkness and Secrecy. (southern)

Mapuche
Among the Mapuche people of South America, the community "shaman", usually a woman, is known as the Machi, and serves the community by performing ceremonies to cure diseases, ward off evil, influence the weather and harvest, and by practicing other forms of healing such as herbalism.


Fuegians
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Although Fuegians (the indigenous peoples of Tierra del Fuego) were all hunter-gatherers,[137] they did not share a common culture. The material culture was not homogenous, either: the big island and the archipelago made two different adaptations possible. Some of the cultures were coast-dwelling, others were land-oriented.[138][139]

Both Selk'nam and Yámana had persons filling in shaman-like roles. The Selk'nams believed their /xon/s to have supernatural capabilities, e.g. to control weather.[140][141] The figure of /xon/ appeared in myths, too.[142] The Yámana /jekamuʃ/[143] corresponds to the Selknam /xon/.[144]


Oceania
In Australia various aboriginal groups refer to their "shamans" as "clever men" and "clever women" also as kadji. These Aboriginal shamans use maban or mabain, the material that is believed to give them their purported magical powers. Besides healing, contact with spiritual beings, involvement in initiation and other secret ceremonies, they are also enforcers of tribal laws, keepers of special knowledge and may "hex" to death one who breaks a social taboo by singing a song only known to the "clever men".


Criticism of the term “shaman” or “shamanism”
Certain anthropologists, most notably Alice Kehoe in her book Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking, are highly critical of the term. Part of this criticism involves the notion of cultural appropriation.[citation needed] This includes criticism of New Age and modern Western forms of Shamanism, which may not only misrepresent or 'dilute' genuine indigenous practices but do so in a way that, according to Kehoe, reinforces racist ideas such as the Noble Savage.[citation needed]

Kehoe is highly critical of Mircea Eliade's work.[citation needed] Eliade, being a philosopher and historian of religions rather than an anthropologist, had never done any field work or made any direct contact with 'shamans' or cultures practicing 'shamanism', though he did spend four years studying at the University of Calcutta in India where he received his doctorate based on his Yoga thesis and was acquainted with Mahatma Gandhi. According to Kehoe, Eliade's 'shamanism' is an invention synthesized from various sources unsupported by more direct research.[citation needed] To Kehoe, what some scholars of shamanism treat as being definitive of shamanism, most notably drumming, trance, chanting, entheogens and hallucinogenics, spirit communication and healing, are practices that

exist outside of what is defined as shamanism and play similar roles even in non-shamanic cultures (such as the role of chanting in Judeo-Christian rituals)[citation needed]
in their expression are unique to each culture that uses them and cannot be generalized easily, accurately or usefully into a global ‘religion’ such as shamanism.[citation needed]
Because of this, Kehoe is also highly critical of the notion that shamanism is an ancient, unchanged, and surviving religion from the Paleolithic period.[citation needed]

Mihály Hoppál also discusses whether the term “shamanism” is appropriate. He recommends using the term “shamanhood”[145] or “shamanship”[146] for stressing the diversity and the specific features of the discussed cultures. This is a term used in old Russian and German ethnographic reports at the beginning of the 20th century. He believes that this term is less general and places more stress on the local variations,[54] and it emphasizes also that shamanism is not a religion of sacred dogmas, but linked to the everyday life in a practical way.[147] Following similar thoughts, he also conjectures a contemporary paradigm shift.[145] Also Piers Vitebsky mentions, that despite really astonishing similarities, there is no unity in shamanism. The various, fragmented shamanistic practices and beliefs coexist with other beliefs everywhere. There is no record of pure shamanistic societies (although, as for the past, their existence is not impossible).[148]

See books and small online materials on this topic.[149]


Shamanism and New Age movement
Main article: Neoshamanism
The New Age movement has appropriated some ideas from shamanism as well as beliefs and practices from Eastern religions and Native American cultures. As with other such appropriations, the original practitioners of these traditions frequently condemn New Age use as misunderstood, sensationalized, or superficially understood and/or applied.[4] Some Nanai shamans experienced performances on the stage as dangerous: inappropriate (untimely, superfluous) invocation of the helping spirits can raise their anger.[150]

There is an endeavor in some occult and esoteric circles to reinvent shamanism in a modern form, drawing from core shamanism - a set of beliefs and practices synthesized by the controversial Michael Harner - often revolving around the use of ritual drumming and dance, and Harner's interpretations of various indigenous religions. Harner has faced much criticism for implying that pieces of diverse religions can be taken out of context to form some sort of "universal" shamanic tradition. Some of these neoshamans also focus on the ritual use of entheogens, as well as chaos magic. Allegedly, European-based Neoshamanic traditions are focused upon the researched or imagined traditions of ancient Europe, where they believe many mystical practices and belief systems were suppressed by the Christian church. Some of these practitioners express a desire to practice a system that is based upon their own ancestral traditions. Some anthropologists and practitioners have discussed the impact of such "neoshamanism" as 'giving extra pay' (Harvey, 1997 and elsewhere) to indigenous American traditions, particularly as many Pagan- or Heathen-'shamanic practitioners' of legitimate cultural traditions do not call themselves shamans, but instead use specific names derived from the older European traditions - the völva or seidkona (seid-woman) of the sagas being an example (see Blain 2002, Wallis 2003). Shamanism has also been used in New Age therapies which use enactment and association with other realities as an intervention [5][6]

(see also Plastic shaman)


See also
Astral spirits
Animism
Ayahuasca
Core Shamanism
Entheogen
Inuit
Mana
Machi (Shaman)
Neoshamanism
Neuroanthropology
Neurotheology
New Age
Ovoo
Paganism
Peyote
Plastic shaman
Power Animal
Prehistoric medicine
Psychopomp
Sacred Hoop Magazine
Shaman's Drum Journal
Shintō
soul catcher
Taoic religion
Technoshamanism
Thoughtform
Yatiri



Notes
^ The History of Religions (1918), E. Washburn Hopkins
^ Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1996). The Manchus. Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 1557865604.
^ a b Hoppál 2005:15
^ Diószegi 1962:13
^ Noll & Shi 2004: 1
^ Voigt 2000:41–45
^ Hoppál 2005: 25
^ a b Sem, Tatyana. Shamanic Healing Rituals. Russian Museum of Ethnography.
^ Hoppál 2005: 27–28
^ Hoppál 2005: 28–33
^ a b Hoppál 2005: 37
^ Hoppál 2005: 34–35
^ a b Hoppál 2005: 36
^ Hoppál 2005: 25
^ Hoppál 2005: 45
^ Boglár 2001: 24
^ Hoppál 2005: 94
^ Vitebsky 1996: 46
^ Hoppál 2005: 149
^ Hoppál 2005:36164
^ Hoppál 2005:87–95
^ Czaplicka 1914
^ a b c d Reichel-Dolmatoff 1997
^ Vitebsky 1996:107
^ a b Boglár 2001:26
^ Merkur 1985: 5
^ Vitebsky 1996:108
^ Kleivan & Sonne: 27–28
^ Merkur 1985: 4
^ Vitebsky 1996: 11, 12–14, 107
^ Hoppál 2005:27, 30, 36
^ Hoppál 2005: 27
^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 7, 19–21
^ a b Gabus, Jean: A karibu eszkimók. Gondolat Kiadó, Budapest, 1970. (Hungarian translation of the original: Vie et coutumes des Esquimaux Caribous, Libraire Payot Lausanne, 1944.) It describes the life of Caribou Eskimo groups.
^ Hoppál 2007: 18
^ Hoppál 2005: 99
^ Hoppál 2005:14
^ Diószegi 1962:13
^ Hoppál 2005:15
^ Hoppál 2005:14
^ Boglár 2001:24
^ a b c Hoppál 2005:25–26,43
^ Hoppál 2004:14
^ Hoppál 2005: 13–15, 58, 197
^ Hoppál 2006a: 11
^ Hoppál 2006b: 175
^ Hoppál 2005:15
^ a b Hoppál, Mihály: Nature worship in Siberian shamanism
^ page 14 in: Dana, Kathleen Osgood. Áillohaš and his image drum: the native poet as shaman (pdf).
^ Merkur 1985:v
^ a b Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff: A View from the Headwaters. The Ecologist, Vol. 29 No. 4, July 1999.
^ Shamanic Worlds: Rituals and Lore of Siberia and Central Asia
^ Noll & Shi 2004
^ a b Hoppál 2005: 15
^ Hoppál 2006c: 143
^ a b Nattiez: 5
^ Deschênes 2002
^ Barüske 1969: 24, 50–51
^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 25
^ Maxfield, Melinda. "The journey of the drum." ReVision 16.4 (1994): 157.
^ Maxfield, Melinda. "The journey of the drum." ReVision 16.4 (1994): 157.
^ Maxfield, Melinda. "The journey of the drum." ReVision 16.4 (1994): 157.
^ Vitebsky 1996: 49
^ Tedlock, Barbara. 2005. The Woman in the Shaman's Body: Reclaiming the Feminine in Religion and Medicine. New York: Bantam.
^ a b Stephen Hugh-Jones 1980: 32
^ a b c Merkur 1985
^ Merkur 1985
^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 8–10
^ a b Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 24
^ a b Noll & Shi 2004: 10, footnote 10
^ a b Noll & Shi 2004: 8–9
^ a b Merkur 1985: 3
^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 24
^ Jean Clottes. Shamanism in Prehistory. Bradshaw foundation. Retrieved on 2008-03-11.
^ a b Karl J. Narr. Prehistoric religion. Britannica online encyclopedia 2008. Retrieved on 2008-03-28.
^ Hoppál 2005: 117
^ a b Hoppál 2005: 259
^ Boglár 2001: 19–20
^ Diószegi 1960: 37–39
^ Omnividence: A word created by Edwin A. Abbott in his book titled Flatland
^ Diószegi 1960: 88–89
^ Hoppál 2005: 224
^ Nagy 1998: 232
^ Merkur 1985:132
^ Merkur 1985:134
^ Hoppál 2005: 92
^ Hoppál 1994: 62
^ Hoppál 2005: 88
^ Hoppál 2005: 93
^ Hoppál 2005: 111, 117–119, 128, 132, 133–134, 252-263
^ Hoppál 2005: 257–258
^ Vitebsky 1996: 150–153
^ A. Asbjorn Jon, Shamanism and the Image of the Teutonic Deity, Óðinn
^ Hajdú 1975:35
^ Diószegi 1998
^ Hoppál 2005:13
^ a b Hoppál 2005:92–93
^ Hoppál 1994:62
^ Hoppál 2005:94
^ Economy of Excess. George Bataille.
^ O. Lardenois, Shamanism and Catholic Indigenous Communites in Taiwan
^ Journeys to Other Worlds: The Rites of Shamans. American Museum of Natural History.
^ Fienup-Riordan, Ann. 1994:206
^ a b Kleivan & Sonne 1985
^ Linguist List's description about Nikolai Vakhtin's book: The Old Sirinek Language: Texts, Lexicon, Grammatical Notes. The author's untransliterated (original) name is “Н.Б. Вахтин”.
^ Representing genealogical relations of (among others) Eskimo-Aleut languages by tree: Alaska Native Languages (found on the site of Alaska Native Language Center)
^ a b Lawrence Kaplan: Comparative Yupik and Inuit (found on the site of Alaska Native Language Center)
^ Ethnologue Report for Eskimo-Aleut
^ Hoppál 2005:15
^ Hoppál 2005:45–50
^ a b Menovščikov 1996:442
^ Merkur 1985
^ Vitebsky 1996
^ Freuchen 1961: 32
^ Рубцова 1954: 203, 209
^ Both death of a person and successfully hunted game require that cutting, sewing etc. be tabooed, so that the invisible soul does not get hurt accidentally (Kleivan&Sonne, pp. 18–21). In Greenland, the transgression of death tabu could turn the soul of the dead into a tupilak, a restless ghost which scared game away (Kleivan&Sonne 1985, p. 23). Animals fleed from hunter in case of taboo breaches, e.g. birth taboo, death taboo (Kleivan&Sonne, pp. 12–13)
^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 24
^ Kleivan 1985:8
^ Rasmussen 1965:366 (ch. XXIII)
^ Rasmussen 1965:166 (ch. XIII)
^ Rasmussen 1965:110 (ch. VIII)
^ Mauss 1979
^ Kleivan 1985:26
^ Menovščikov 1996 [1968]:433
^ Menovščikov 1996 [1968]:442
^ Vitebsky 1996:42 (ch. North America)
^ Merkur 1985:7
^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985:14
^ Rubcova 1954:128
^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 27
^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 30–31
^ Joralemen, D and D Sharon 1993 Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
^ Dean, Bartholomew 1998 “Review of Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru” American Ethnologist. 25(1): 61-62.
^ Christine Hugh-Jones 1980
^ Stephen Hugh-Jones 1980
^ Fock 1963: 16
^ Gusinde 1966, pp. 6–7
^ Service, Elman: The Hunter. Prentice-Hall, 1966.
^ Extinct Ancient Societies Tierra del Fuegians
^ Gusinde 1966:175
^ About the Ona Indian Culture in Tierra del Fuego
^ Gusinde 1966:15
^ Gusinde 1966:156
^ Gusinde 1966:186
^ a b ISSR, 2001 Summer, abstract online in 2nd half of 2nd paragraph)
^ Hoppál & Szathmári & Takács 2006: 14
^ Hoppál 1998:40
^ Vitebsky 1996:11
^ Books relating to “shamanhood”, some of them with online abstract:
(Online abstract) Pentikäinen, Juha. Shamanhood symbolism and epic. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 2001. ISBN 963-05-7811-5.
Pentikäinen, Juha and Simoncsics, Péter (eds): Shamanhood. An endangered language. The Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture, 2005. (Series B, 117). ISBN 82-7099-391-3.
See also similar online abstracts.
^ Shaman on the Stage (Shamanism and Northern Identity) by Tatyana Bulgakova

References
Latin
Barüske, Heinz (1969). Eskimo Märchen, Die Märchen der Weltliteratur (in German). Düsseldorf • Köln: Eugen Diederichs Verlag. The title means: “Eskimo tales”, the series means: “The tales of world literature”.
Boglár, Lajos (2001). A kultúra arcai. Mozaikok a kulturális antropológia köreiből, TÁRStudomány (in Hungarian). Budapest: Napvilág Kiadó. ISBN 963 908294 5. The title means “The faces of culture. Mosaics fom the area of cultural anthropology”.
Czaplicka, M. A. (1914). "Types of shaman", Shamanism in Siberia. Aboriginal Siberia. A study in social anthropology, preface by Marett, R. R., Sommerville College, University of Oxford, Clarendon Press.
Deschênes, Bruno (2002). Inuit Throat-Singing. Musical Traditions. The Magazine for Traditional Music Throughout the World.
Diószegi, Vilmos (1960). Sámánok nyomában Szibéria földjén. Egy néprajzi kutatóút története (in Hungarian). Budapest: Magvető Könyvkiadó. The book has been translated to English: Diószegi, Vilmos (1968). Tracing shamans in Siberia. The story of an ethnographical research expedition, Translated from Hungarian by Anita Rajkay Babó, Oosterhout: Anthropological Publications.
Diószegi, Vilmos (1962). Samanizmus, Élet és Tudomány Kiskönyvtár (in Hungarian). Budapest: Gondolat. The title means: “Shamanism”.
Diószegi, Vilmos [1958] (1998). A sámánhit emlékei a magyar népi műveltségben, first reprint (in Hungarian), Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN ISBN 963 05 7542 6. The title means: “Remnants of shamanistic beliefs in Hungarian folklore”.
Fienup-Riordan, Ann (1994). Boundaries and Passages: Rule and Ritual in Yup'ik Eskimo Oral Tradition. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
Fock, Niels (1963). Waiwai. Religion and society of an Amazonian tribe, Nationalmuseets skrifter, Etnografisk Række (Ethnographical series), VIII. Copenhagen: The National Museum of Denmark.
Freuchen, Peter (1961). Book of the Eskimos. Cleveland • New York: The World Publishing Company.
Gusinde, Martin (1966). Nordwind—Südwind. Mythen und Märchen der Feuerlandindianer. (in German). Kassel: E. Röth. The title means: “Northern wind, southern wind. Myths and tales of Fuegians”.
Hajdú, Péter (1975). "A rokonság nyelvi háttere", in Hajdú, Péter: Uráli népek. Nyelvrokonaink kultúrája és hagyományai (in Hungarian). Budapest: Corvina Kiadó. ISBN 963 13 0900 2. The title means: “Uralic peoples. Culture and traditions of our linguistic relatives”; the chapter means “Linguistical background of the relationship”.
Hoppál, Mihály (1994). Sámánok, lelkek és jelképek (in Hungarian). Budapest: Helikon Kiadó. ISBN 963 208 298 2. The title means “Shamans, souls and symbols”.
Hoppál, Mihály (1998). "A honfoglalók hitvilága és a magyar samanizmus", Folklór és közösség (in Hungarian). Budapest: Széphalom Könyvműhely, 40–45. ISBN 963 9028 142. The title means “The belief system of Hungarians when they entered the Pannonian Basin, and their shamanism”.
Hoppál, Mihály (2005). Sámánok Eurázsiában (in Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN 963-05-8295-3. The title means “Shamans in Eurasia”, the book is published also in German, Estonian and Finnish. Site of publisher with short description on the book (in Hungarian).
Hoppál, Mihály (2006a). "Sámánok, kultúrák és kutatók az ezredfordulón", in Hoppál, Mihály & Szathmári, Botond & Takács, András: Sámánok és kultúrák. Budapest: Gondolat, 9–25. ISBN 963 9450 286. The chapter title means “Shamans, cultures and researchers in the millenary”, the book title means “Shamans and cultures”.
Hoppál, Mihály (2006b). "Sámánság a nyenyecek között", in Hoppál, Mihály & Szathmári, Botond & Takács, András: Sámánok és kultúrák. Budapest: Gondolat, 170–182. ISBN 963 9450 286. The chapter title means “Shamanhood among the Nenets”, the book title means “Shamans and cultures”.
Hoppál, Mihály (2006c). "Music of Shamanic Healing", in Gerhard Kilger: Macht Musik. Musik als Glück und Nutzen für das Leben. Köln: Wienand Verlag. ISBN 3879098654.
Hoppál, Mihály (2007). "Eco-Animism of Siberian Shamanhood", Shamans and Traditions (Vol 13), Bibliotheca Shamanistica. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 17–26. ISBN 978 963 05 8521 7.
Hugh-Jones, Christine (1980). From the Milk River: Spatial and Temporal Processes in Northwest Amazonia, Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. Cambridge University Press.
Hugh-Jones, Stephen (1980). The Palm and the Pleiades. Initiation and Cosmology in Northwest Amazonia, Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. Cambridge University Press.
Kleivan, Inge; B. Sonne (1985). Eskimos: Greenland and Canada, Iconography of religions, section VIII, "Arctic Peoples", fascicle 2. Leiden, The Netherlands: Institute of Religious Iconography • State University Groningen. E.J. Brill. ISBN 90-04-07160-1.
Lawlor, Robert (1991). Voices Of The First Day: Awakening in the Aboriginal dreamtime. Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions International, Ltd. ISBN 0-89281-355-5
Menovščikov, G. A. (= Г. А. Меновщиков) (1968). "Popular Conceptions, Religious Beliefs and Rites of the Asiatic Eskimoes", in Diószegi, Vilmos: Popular beliefs and folklore tradition in Siberia. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.
Merkur, Daniel (1985). Becoming Half Hidden: Shamanism and Initiation among the Inuit. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell. ISBN 91-22-00752-0.
Nagy, Beáta Boglárka (1998). "Az északi szamojédok", in Csepregi, Márta: Finnugor kalauz, Panoráma (in Hungarian). Budapest: Medicina Könyvkiadó, 221–234. ISBN 963 243 813 2. The chapter means “Northern Samoyedic peoples”, the title means Finno-Ugric guide.
Nattiez, Jean Jacques, Inuit Games and Songs • Chants et Jeux des Inuit, Musiques & musiciens du monde • Musics & musicians of the world, Montreal: Research Group in Musical Semiotics, Faculty of Music, University of Montreal . The songs are online available from the ethnopoetics website curated by Jerome Rothenberg.
Noll, Richard; Shi, Kun (2004). "Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu). The Last Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China" (pdf). Journal of Korean Religions (6): 135–162. It describes the life of Chuonnasuan, the last shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China.
Reichel-Dolmatoff, Gerardo (1997). Rainforest Shamans: Essays on the Tukano Indians of the Northwest Amazon. Dartington: Themis Books. ISBN 0-9527302-4-3.
Vitebsky, Piers (1995). The Shaman (Living Wisdom). Duncan Baird.
Vitebsky, Piers (1996). A sámán, Bölcsesség • hit • mítosz (in Hungarian). Budapest: Magyar Könyvklub • Helikon Kiadó. ISBN 963 208 361 X. Translation of Vitebsky 1995
Vitebsky, Piers (2001). The Shaman: Voyages of the Soul - Trance, Ecstasy and Healing from Siberia to the Amazon. Duncan Baird. ISBN 1-903296-18-8.
Voigt, Vilmos (1966). A varázsdob és a látó asszonyok. Lapp népmesék, Népek meséi (in Hungarian). Budapest: Európa Könyvkiadó. The title means: “The magic drum and the clairvoyant women. Sami folktales”, the series means: “Tales of folks”.
Voigt, Miklós (2000). "Sámán — a szó és értelme", Világnak kezdetétől fogva. Történeti folklorisztikai tanulmányok (in Hungarian). Budapest: Universitas Könyvkiadó, 41–45. ISBN 963 9104 39 6. The chapter discusses the etymology and meaning of word “shaman”.
Cyrillic
Рубцова, Е. С. (1954). Материалы по языку и фольклору эскимосов (чаплинский диалект) (in Russian). Москва • Ленинград: Академия Наук СССР. Rendering in English: Rubcova, E. S. (1954). Materials on the Language and Folklore of the Eskimoes (Vol. I, Chaplino Dialect). Moscow • Leningrad: Academy of Sciences of the USSR.

Further reading
Joseph Campbell, The Masks of God: Primitive Mythology. 1959; reprint, New York and London: Penguin Books, 1976. ISBN 0-14-019443-6
Richard de Mille, ed. The Don Juan Papers: Further Castaneda Controversies. Santa Barbara, CA: Ross-Erikson, 1980.
George Devereux, "Shamans as Neurotics", American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 63, No. 5, Part 1. (Oct., 1961), pp. 1088-1090.
Nevill Drury, The Shaman and the Magician: Journeys Between the Worlds, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1982. ISBN 0-7100-0910-0
Mircea Eliade, Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy. 1964; reprint, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-691-11942-2
Jay Courtney Fikes, Carlos Castaneda: Academic Opportunism and the Psychedelic Sixties, Millennia Press, Canada, 1993ISBN 0-9696960-0-0
Joan Halifax, ed. Shamanic Voices: A Survey of Visionary Narratives. 1979; reprint, New York and London: Penguin, 1991. ISBN 0-14-019348-0
Michael Harner: The Way of the Shaman. 1980, new edition, HarperSanFrancisco, 1990, ISBN 0-06-250373-1
Graham Harvey, ed. Shamanism: A Reader. New York and London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0-415-25330-6.
Åke Hultkrantz (Honorary Editor in Chief): Shaman. Journal of the International Society for Shamanistic Research
Philip Jenkins, Dream Catchers: How Mainstream America Discovered Native Spirituality. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-19-516115-7
Alice Kehoe, Shamans and Religion: An Anthropoligical Exploration in Critical Thinking. 2000. London: Waveland Press. ISBN 1-57766-162-1
Jeremy Narby and Francis Huxley, eds. Shamans Through Time: 500 Years on the Path to Knowledge. 2001; reprint, New York: Tarcher, 2004. ISBN 0-500-28327-3
Daniel C. Noel. Soul Of Shamanism: Western Fantasies, Imaginal Realities.Continuum, 1997. ISBN 0-8264-1081-2
Åke Ohlmarks 1939: Studien zum Problem des Schamanismus. Gleerup, Lund.
Jordan Paper. The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Religion, SUNY Press, 1995. ISBN 0-7914-2315-8
John Perkins. The World Is As You Dream It: Shamanic Teachings from the Amazon and Andes. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street, 1994. ISBN 0-89281-459-4
John Perkins. Spirit of the Shuar: Wisdom from the Last Unconquered People of the Amazon. Destiny Books, 2001. ISBN 0-89-281865-4
Barbara Tedlock, Time and the Highland Maya,U. of New Mexico Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8263-1358-2
Alberto Villoldo, PhD, Erik Jendresen: Dance of the Four Winds - Secrets of the Inca Medicine Wheel. Destiny Books ISBN 978-0892815142
Piers Vitebsky, The Shaman: Voyages of the Soul - Trance, Ecstasy and Healing from Siberia to the Amazon, Duncan Baird, 2001. ISBN 1-903296-18-8
Michael Winkelman, (2000) Shamanism: The Neural Ecology of Consciousness and Healing. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey.
Andrei Znamenski, ed. Shamanism: Critical Concepts, 3 vols. London: Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0-415-31192-6
Andrei Znamenski, Shamanism in Siberia: Russian Records of Siberian Spirituality. Dordrech and Boston: Kluwer/Springer, 2003. ISBN 1-4020-1740-5
Andrei Znamenski, The Beauty of the Primitive: Shamanism and the Western Imagination.Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. ISBN 0195172310

External links
http://www.krupar.com/index.php?file=www/en/gallery/gallery.html&cat=5 Shamanism in Siberia
Richard, Noll; Shi, Kun (2004). "Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu). The Last Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China" (pdf). Journal of Korean Religions (6): 135–162. It describes the life of Chuonnasuan, the last shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China.
NAFPS - New Age Frauds and Plastic Shamans is a First Nations (American Indian) group devoted to alerting seekers about fraudulent teachers, and helping them avoid being exploited or participating in exploitation.
Sem, Tatyana. Shamanic Healing Rituals. Russian Museum of Ethnography.
Chinese Shamanka - Short documentary about mop-nyit ceremony in Sichuan.
Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff (July 1999). "A View from the Headwaters". The Ecologist 29 (4). It discusses the symbolics of shamanism of Amazonian indigenous groups, and also its "ecological" functions: avoiding the depletion of scare resources.
A. Asbjorn Jon. Shamanism and the Image of the Teutonic Deity, Óðinn (pdf). It considers cross cultural similarities in shamanic belief.
Hoppál, Mihály (2006c). "Music of Shamanic Healing", in Gerhard Kilger: Macht Musik. Musik als Glück und Nutzen für das Leben. Köln: Wienand Verlag. ISBN 3879098654.
Diószegi, Vilmos; Eliade, Mircea "Shamanism". Encyclopædia Britannica (online).
American Indian Shamanism a full chapter from Frithjof Schuon's book Light on the Ancient Worlds: New Translation with Selected Letters.
Lintrop, Aado. Studies in Siberian Shamanism and Religions of the Finno-Ugrian Peoples. Folk Belief and Media Group of the Estonian Literary Museum.
The shaman — trailer. Nganasan tribe (streamed). Youtube.
Videos of Tatiana Urkachan Tungus Shaman Woman (streamed). Youtube